Nerium oleander L., Apocynaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Evaluate, score: 6 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Nerium indicum Mill.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: adelfa, rosa laurel

Chuukese: wiliancher

English: mountain rose, oleander, rosebay

Fijian: rusi, vasa

French: laurier blanc, laurier rose

I-Kiribati: te orian, te orion

Maori (Cook Islands): tārona

Marshallese: oliaanta, olianta

Niuean: talona

Other: holiandah

Pukapukan: tālona

Samoan: oliana

Spanish: laurel

Tahitian: tarona, tarona uouo

Tongan: lolie

Tongarevan (spoken): tiare tālona

Tongarevan (written): tiare tārona

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Shrub to 5 m high or more with clear sap.  Leaves simple, arranged in whorls of three, blade narrowly elliptic, usually 8-18 cm long, surface finely veined.  Flowers continuously though the year; flowers many, borne in dense terminal clusters.  Corolla of fused petals, funnel-shaped, 3.5-5.5 cm long, with a spreading limb 4-6 cm across, five-lobed, or double-flowered, with a ring of filamentous appendages in the center, pink, purple, or white.  Fruit pod-like, cylindrical, usually 7-12 cm long, filled with hairy seeds"  (Whistler, 2000; p. 330).

Var. indicum:  "Large shrubs; leaves whorled in groups of 3, linear-lanceolate, acute at both ends, 10-30 cm long 1.5-3 cm wide, finely puberulent, firmly chartaceous or thin coriaceous, rather dull slightly grayed green; young branchlets slightly 3-angled; flowers pink or white, sometimes with double petals, commonly 4-5 cm wide; fruit (seldom seen) 15-25 cm long"  (Stone, 1970; p. 482).

Habitat/ecology:  Widely cultivated.  In Fiji, "cultivated in towns and villages and sometimes naturalized in forest along creeks at elevations from near sea level to 600 m"  (Smith, 1988; p. 193).  In Niue, "a common cultivated shrub in villages.  It grows around old habitation and grave sites as a persistent relic of cultivation... (Sykes,1970; p. 45). Arid lowlands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 175).  In Australia, "it has naturalised in riparian habitat (following flooding) in central Victoria, where it has produced many seedlings and appears very competitive" (Robinson, cited in Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 119).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  "Mediterranean area but now cultivated and often naturalized throughout the tropics and subtropics" (Smith, 1988; p. 193).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 56) Var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Manihiki Atoll	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Pukapuka Atoll	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Rakahanga Atoll	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Namonuito (Namonweito, Nómwun Wiité) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. (1989) (p. 55) Voucher cited: Manner & Mallon 220 (GUAM)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 11)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Mokil Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Nukuoro Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (p. 103) Voucher cited: DA 13854 (Damanu 6)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (p. 103) Vouchers cited: Smith 4431, Smith 9618, DA 16232
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Marquesas Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 37) Escapes from cultivation and persists.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 7) Var. indicum
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 57)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 7) var. oleander and var. indicum
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 37) Vouchers cited: Moore 321, More 388, BRY 26056 Escapes from cultivation and persists.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 7) var. oleander and var. indicum
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 37) Voucher cited: Florence 4707 Escapes from cultivation and persists.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Grant, Martin Lawrence;Fosberg, F. Raymond/Smith, Howard M. (1974) (pp. 53-54) Vouchers cited: Moore 321 (BISH, MIN), Moore 388 (BISH, MIN)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai (Tubai) Island	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 21) var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.; voucher cited: Sachet 1976 (US) One plant.
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Manihi Atoll	introduced	Sachet, M-H. (1983) (p. 33) Vouchers cited: Brooks & Brooks 13 (BISH), Brooks & Brooks 38 (BISH)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Niau Atoll	introduced cultivated	Grant, Martin Lawrence;Fosberg, F. Raymond/Smith, Howard M. (1974) (pp. 53-54) Voucher cited: Jones 841 (BISH)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Raroia Atoll	introduced	Doty, Maxwell S. (1954) (p. 39)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M-H. (1983) (pp. 32-33) Voucher cited: Sachet 2030 (US)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 482) Voucher cited: Stone 4141 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Also var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007) Var. indicum (Mill.) O.Deg. et Greenwell
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 28) Persisting in abandoned gardens.
Kiribati Line Islands	Teraina (Washington) Island	introduced cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 28) Persisting in abandoned gardens.
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	introduced	Luomala, Katharine (1951) (p. 173)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Onotoa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Onotoa Atoll	cultivated	Moul, Edwin T. (1957) (p. 19) Voucher cited: Moul 8302 (US)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Also var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Ailinglaplap (Ailinglapalap) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Also var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1962) (p. 31) Voucher cited: Fosberg 26730 (US); also var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg., voucher cited: Fosberg 26785 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 98)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Lae Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 17) Voucher cited: Fosberg 34000 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Ujae Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Ujae Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 17) Voucher cited: Fosberg 34293 (US); var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg., voucher cited: Fosberg 34291 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll		Anderson, Donald (1951) (p. iv) Voucher cited: Anderson 3676
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 5) "Rare; single tree in private residence in Ine".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 17) Var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg., voucher cited: Fosberg 27063 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 65)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Utirik (Utrõk) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Utirik (Utrõk) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 17) Nerium sp.; voucher cited: Fosberg 33685 (US)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 92) Voucher cited: Fosberg 58783 (US)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 16) Voucher cited: MacKee 27930
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 16) Voucher cited: Baumann 15348
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (p. 76) Relic of cultivation.
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 141) "An occasional escape from cultivation".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 45) Voucher cited: CHR 169909
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 98) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9781 (BISH) "Naturalized in thickets".
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 216) Var. indicum (Mill.) Deg. & Deg.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 47) Voucher cited: Fosberg 11257
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 94)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 222) "Frequent in villages".
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced cultivated	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 58)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 119) Victoria and Western Australia.
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 141) "An occasional escape from cultivation in the warmest parts of NZ".

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 121)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced cultivated	Topp, J. M. W. (1988) (p. 10)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé"

Comments:  Known to naturalize in the tropics (Smith, 1988; p. 193).

"All parts of the plant are poisonous; ingestion of the leaves or flowers can be fatal" (Smith, 1988; p. 193).

Additional information:  Additional online information about Nerium oleander is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Nerium oleander may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Anderson, Donald. 1951. The plants of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 7. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 4 pp. + 7 pp. appendix.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Doty, Maxwell S. 1954. Floristic and Ecological Notes on Raroia Atoll, Tuamotus. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 33. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 41 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 39 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Grant, Martin Lawrence;Fosberg, F. Raymond/Smith, Howard M. 1974. Partial flora of the Society Islands: Ericaceae to Apocynaceae. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 17. 85 pp.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

Luomala, Katharine. 1951. Plants of Canton Island, Phoenix Islands. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 20(11):157-174.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. 1989. An Annotated list of the vascular plants of Pulawat Atoll. Micronesica 22:23-63.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Moul, Edwin T. 1957. Preliminary report on the flora of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 57. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 48 pp.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Sachet, M-H. 1983. Takapoto Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago: terrestrial vegetation and flora. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 277. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 41 pp. + photos.

Sachet, M.-H. 1983. Botanique de l'ile de Tupai, Iles de la Societe. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 276. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 26 pp. + photos.

Smith, Albert C. 1988. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 4. 377 pp.

St. John, H. 1987. An account of the flora of Pitcairn Island with new Pandanus species. Honolulu, 65 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1977. Kermadec Islands flora: an annotated checklist. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 219, Wellington. 216 pp.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

Topp, J. M. W. 1988. An annotated check list of the flora of Diego Garcia, British Ocean Territory. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 313. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 21 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian. 2007. Arno plants [preliminary working listing of plant species]. Unpublished checklist, 13 pp.

Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand, Volume IV: Naturalised pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch. 1365 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wester, Lyndon. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reseach Bulletin 287:1-38.

Whistler, W. A. 1984. Annotated list of Samoan plant names. Economic Botany 38:464.489.

Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 542 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1943. The flora of Niue Island. Bishop Mus. Bull. 178. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 126 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.