Momordica charantia L., Cucurbitaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: almagosa, atmagoso, atmagosu

English: balsam apple, balsam pear, bitter cucumber, bitter gourd, bitter melon, carilla gourd, cerasee bush, peria, squirting cucumber

French: concombre africain, concombre amer, margose, margose á piquants, margose amère, momordique, momordique amère, pomme de merveille

Hindi: kerala, kerela

Maori (Cook Islands): menemene, pō kutekute, pōkutekute rengarenga

Palauan: markoso

Spanish: achoccha silvestre, achocha China, achochilla, archucha, balsamina, balsamino, balsamito, bálsamo, balsamo, calaica, cunde amor grande, cundeamor, papayilla, paroka, pepinillo, pepino, sorosi

Tongan: meleni ‘ae kuma, vaine ‘initia

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Herbaceous, slender climber with slightly pubescent stems and leaves; petiole = blade; leaves to 10-12 cm long, palmately 5-7-lobed; the lobes " sinuate-dentate; flowers yellow; peduncle with a reniform bracteole; corolla 1.5-2 cm long; fruit obovoid or oblong-cylindric, coarsely ridged and bumpy-tuberculate, to 20 cm, orange or dark yellow when ripe, splitting open to reveal the seeds, these black but covered with a soft, fleshy red aril, 12-16 mm long" (Stone, 1970; p. 566).

Habitat/ecology:  Cultivated for flowers and fruit and escapes cultivation.  In the wild, in dry to moist areas at lower elevations.  "From sea level to nearly 1000 m.  It grows where annual precipitation is as low as 480 mm to as much as 4100 mm, where mean temperatures are as low as 12.5° C to as high as 25° C, and in soil with pHs from 4.3 to 8.7.  Plants grow rapidly and cover the supporting vegetation or structures,  The tendril tips curl around the nearest object.  The rest of the tendril then coils like a spring, pulling the stem to the support object" (Holm et al., 1997; p. 476).

In Hawai‘i, "widely naturalized in disturbed sites, 0-300 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 572).  In Fiji, "occurring in coastal thickets or along creeks and rivers up to an elevation of perhaps 100 m"  (Smith, 1981; pp. 675-676). Arid lowlands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 309). In New Guinea, "useful as a ground cover, particularly under cocoa, but forming a blanket over other vegetation when uncontrolled; a weed in grazing land, unpalatable to stock. Widespread at low altitudes but only locally common" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 94).

Propagation:  Bird- and animal-dispersed seed and underground stems.

Native range:  Old world tropics.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Manu‘a Islands		Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) Reported to be on the Manu'a Islands but not seen by Space & Flynn.
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Manu‘a Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1990)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 36)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Aguijan (Agiguan, Aguihan) Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 49)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 178)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 5)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 49)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 49)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 28) Specimen collected: BMW 5791 (BISH, BRI, GUAM)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 675-676) Voucher cited: Smith 309
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 675-676) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 143, DA 12137, DA 10794, DA 10964, DA 10191
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 33)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 94) Voucher cited: H.M. Smith 124
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	University of California (2006) "Very common weed, observed even up to the highest elevations on Moorea. Possibly introduced prior to European arrival perhaps as a food source".
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 94) Voucher cited: Florence 10481
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 94) Vouchers cited: BRY 25980, BRY 25770
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 566) Vouchers cited: Stone 4124 (GUAM), G.E.S. 21, MacGregor 468
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 178)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 571-572) Voucher cited: Faurie 977 (P)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94) Presence not verified.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 7) "Uncommon; vine growing in Bikini Projects garden, used for food, some plants escaping into the wild".
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 100)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 89)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 125) Voucher cited: Scully 144N (US)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 46) Voucher cited: Däniker 2476
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Walpole	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 46) Voucher cited: Hmakone & Sam in MacKee 25857
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Walpole	introduced	Renevier, Alain/Cherrier, Jean-Francois (1991) (p. 16) Voucher cited: Cherrier in MacKee 44040
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Balabio	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 46) Voucher cited: MacKee 29338
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 46) Vouchers cited: Cribs 608, MacKee 4123, MacKee 11912, MacKee 31254
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (pp. 79-80) Reported to be present but not seen by Space & Flynn; may be in cultivation. Voucher cited: CHR 170279
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 16)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 8) Not seen on this survey.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 104)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 102)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 178)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 98)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 98)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 106)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngercheu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 108) Carp Resort.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 63)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Hafliger, Toni J./Wolf, Matthias (1988) (p. 238)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 92)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 18) Vouchers cited: Soakai 529, Soakai 650
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 260) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15981
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Tofua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Tofua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Scarth-Johnson 58
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 260) "Frequent throughout Tonga".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Soakai 372
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 260) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15473
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 260) Cited: Moseley.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Crosby 70
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 260) Cited: Crosby.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced	Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 39)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Martz, Kim (2000) (p. 10) Voucher cited: Starr & Martz 990421-11 (BISH)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Hafliger, Toni J./Wolf, Matthias (1988) (p. 238)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 474)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 474)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 478)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 474)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 478)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (pp. 478-479)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (pp. 478-479)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 474)
South Korea South Korea	South Korea (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 239)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 474)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 478)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 479)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 474)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 474)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 120) Possibly naturalized.
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	native	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 17)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 479)

Comments:  "The balsam pear, Momordica charantia, has become an invasive species present on Aitutaki [Cook Islands]. It is to be found more and more, climbing all over the bushes and trees in the wild. And because of its excellent healing properties, people here have even started to cultivate this vine around their houses." (Bill Tschan, pers. com.)

Control: 

Physical: Its twinning habit makes it difficult to control. The best is to cut the plant from its base in soil to cut transport of nutrients and water, but this practice is labor-intensive (Ecoport).

Additional information:  Fact sheet from the University of Florida Extension Service. (PDF format)

Additional online information about Momordica charantia is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Momordica charantia may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Unpublished database and supplement to: Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Hafliger, Toni J./Wolf, Matthias. 1988. Dicot weeds, vol. 1. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 335 pp.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Haselwood, E. L./Motter, G. G. 1983. Handbook of Hawaiian Weeds. Second edition, revised and expanded by Robert T. Hirano. University of Hawaii Press. 491 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James. 1997. World weeds: natural histories and distribution. John Wiley & Sons. 1129 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Renevier, Alain/Cherrier, Jean-Francois. 1991. Flore et vegetation de l'Ile de Walpole. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 352. 21 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane. 2000. Invasive plant species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 31 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 41 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Starr, Forest/Martz, Kim. 2000. New plant records from Midway Atoll for 1999. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1999. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 64:10-12.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

Thaman, R. R./Tuiwawa, M. 1999. Invasive, potentially invasive and adventive alien plant species of Fiji: a preliminary analysis of their status and measures required for their control. Preliminary draft discussion paper prepared for the SPREP Regional Invasive Species Strategy for the South Pacific Islands Region: Regional Workshop, Nadi, Fiji, 26 September-1 October 1999.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

University of California. 2006. Moorea Digital Flora Project (online resource).

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

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