Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke, Malvaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Malva coromandeliana L., Malvastrum tricuspidatum A. Gray

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: escobilla

English: broom weed, clock plant, false mallow, prickly malvastrum

Mangarevan: purumu

Maori (Cook Islands): purūmu

Marquesan: hopa, hopa, puehu

Niuean: motofu lau taletale

Tahitian: ko vai iva, koai, purumu

Tongan: te‘ehoosi, te‘ehosi, te‘ekosi

Tuamotuan: poronu

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Tough-stemmed, woody-rooted herb to 1 m high, usually less, pubescent with characteristic 4-rayed hairs; leaves ovate or ovate-elliptic, 3-6 cm long, 1-3.5 cm wide, acute or obtuse, margins serrate, 3-nerved from base, petioles 1.5-4 cm long; flowers solitary in axils; peduncle 5 mm long; stipules subulate about 1 cm long; epicalyx of 3 free subulate bracts; calyx pubescent; corolla yellow, about 1.3 cm broad; flowers occasionally paired or terminal; fruit about 6 mm broad; seeds reniform, ripe carpel with a few stiff hairs and 2 stubby points on the convex (outer) side."  (Stone, 1970; p. 414).

Habitat/ecology:  "A weed in wet-mesic lowland pastures and non-cropland"  (Motooka et al., 2003).  In Guam, "in waste ground, by roadsides, in abandoned city lots, etc." (Stone, 1970; p. 414).  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in disturbed sites, 3-610 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p 894).  In Fiji, "locally abundant near sea level as a naturalized weed in waste places, gardens, canefields, and open fields and along roadsides" (Smith, 1981; pp. 434-435).  In Niue, "a weed of waste places and plantations" (Sykes, 1970; p. 115).  "Occasional to common in disturbed places and roadsides, but rare in Samoa" (Whistler, 1988; p. 29). In New Guinea, "a weed of roadsides, waste land and pastures. At low altitudes, mainly in areas with seasonal rainfall" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 120). In Tonga, "a rather common roadside and waste-area weed" (Yuncker, 1959; p. 181).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Southern USA, Mexico and Central America, now a pantropical weed (Stone, 1970; p. 414).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced	Pickard, J. (1984) (p. 207)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 20) "Common, especially beside tracks and roads". Vouchers cited: P.S. Green 1635 (A, K), L.A.S. Johnson & A.N. Rodd 1265 (K, NSW), G.Uhe 1338 (K)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 9) "Common, especially beside tracks and roads". Voucher cited: R.M. Laing (CHR)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 32) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31436 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 32) Vouchers cited: Falanruw 1938 (US), Fosberg 31691 (US, BISH, Fo)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 46)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Santiago Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	introduced invasive	Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. (1989) (p. 51) Voucher cited: Manner & Mallon 167 (GUAM)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 434-435) Voucher cited: DA 1358
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 434-435) Vouchers cited: DA 1129, DA 2896, DA 10770
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 434-435) Voucher cited: DA 10244
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 434-435) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 100, DA 9744, DA 2806, DA 10667, DA 9764, DA 1682, DA 2819, DA 10793
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Agakauitai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Akamaru Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Aukena Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Taravai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Eiao Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hatuta'a Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Motane (Mohotane, Mohotani) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maiao (Maiaoiti, Mauiti, Tupuaemanu) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 48) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 64805 (US), Fosberg 64859 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mopelia (Mapetia, Maupiha‘a, Maupihoa, Mopiha‘a) Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mopelia (Mapetia, Maupiha‘a, Maupihoa, Mopiha‘a) Atoll	introduced invasive	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 31) Voucher cited: Sachet 945 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 176) Vouchers cited: Moore 193, Whistler 4879
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 176) Vouchers cited: Florence 22550, Grant 4929
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Manihi Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Niau Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Rangiroa (Rairoa) Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Raroia Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced invasive	Sachet, M-H. (1983) (p. 28) Voucher cited: Sachet 2076 (US)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Tikehau (Tikahau) Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Rimatara (Rimitara) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Tubuai (Tupuai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 414) Voucher cited: Stone 3792 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894) Voucher cited: Brigham 18 (BISH)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Japan (offshore islands) Marcus Island	Marcus Island (Minami Tori Shima)	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
Kiribati Line Islands	Flint Island	introduced invasive	St. John, Harold/Fosberg, F. Raymond (1937) (p. 4) Voucher cited: St. John & Fosberg 17457 (BISH)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 27)
Kiribati Line Islands	Teraina (Washington) Island	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 27)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Abemama Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 12) Voucher specimen collected: Imada 2003-165 (BISH 697776)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94) Presence not verified.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	introduced invasive	St. John, Harold (1960) (p. 330) Voucher cited: Lane 57-103
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 163)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 166) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58694 (US), Fosberg 58728 (US), Fosberg 58766 (US), Hassall 207 (SUVA)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Ouvéa (Ouvea Atoll)	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 98) Voucher cited: Bourret 767 (NOU)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Tiga	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 98) Voucher cited: MacKee 45847
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Walpole	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 98) Voucher cited: Cherrier in MacKee 44076
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 98) Vouchers cited: Vieillard 154, Balansa 434, MacKee 15948
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 115) Vouchers cited: CHR 170349, CHR 170350, CHR 170351
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 29)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 38)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 81) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9582 (BISH), Yuncker 9874 (BISH), Yuncker 10030 (BISH), Yuncker 10033 (BISH), Yuncker 10117 (BISH) "A common roadside and plantation weed difficult to control because of its deep-rooting habit".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 44)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 120)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 227)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 219-222)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 29)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 89)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 42) Voucher cited: Soakai 304
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 181) "Common throughout Tonga".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 42) Voucher cited: Soakai 409
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 42) Voucher cited: Soakai 109
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 181) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15162
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 894)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 29)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 227)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 227)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 227)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 227)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 119)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced	Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. (1971) (p. 154) Voucher cited: Wiehe in 1939 (MAU)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 227)

Control: 

Physical:  "Even goats and sheep don't seem to relish false mallow"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Chemical: "Tolerant of herbicides.  May require application of triclopyr in an oil carrier"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).

Additional online information about Malvastrum coromandelianum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Malvastrum coromandelianum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Unpublished database and supplement to: Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J. 2004. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 2. Paris. IRE Editions, Publications Scientifiques, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 41. 503 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. 1989. An Annotated list of the vascular plants of Pulawat Atoll. Micronesica 22:23-63.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Pickard, J. 1984. Exotic plants on Lord Howe Island: Distribution in space and time, 1853-1981. J. of Biogeography 11:181-208.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Sachet, M-H. 1983. Takapoto Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago: terrestrial vegetation and flora. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 277. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 41 pp. + photos.

Sachet, M.-H. 1983. Natural history of Mopelia Atoll, Society Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reserch Bulletin 274. 37 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

St. John, Harold. 1960. Flora of Eniwetok Atoll. Pacific Science 14(4):313-336.

St. John, Harold/Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1937. Vegetation of Flint Island, Central Pacific. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers XII(24):1-4.

Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. 1971. Geography and ecology of Diego Garcia Atoll, Chagos Archipelago. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 149. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 237 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

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