Ipomoea triloba L., Convolvulaceae

Click on an image for links to BIGGER PICTURES

Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: fofgu-sabana

Chinese: shan lie ye shu

English: Aiea morning-glory, little bell, pink convolvulus, potato-vine, three-lobe morningglory

Japanese: hoshi-asagao

Palauan: orech, torech

Spanish: batatilla, campanilla, churristate, puyui

Habit:  vine

Description:  "An annual herb with twining stems, 1 to 3 m long, glabrous except the inflorescence; stems somewhat angled, about 3 mm thick, milky; leaves broadly ovate to orbicular in outline, entire, coarsely dentate to more or less deeply 3-lobed, center lobe may be pointed, base broadly cordate, 4 to 11 cm long, often nearly as wide; petiole slender, 3 to 10 cm, glabrous or sometimes minutely tuberculate; inflorescence axillary; peduncle shorter to longer than the petiole, angular, minutely verrucose toward the apex, one-flowered or cymosely few to several-flowered; branches of the cyme very short; flowers aggregate; pedicels minutely verrucose or glabrous, 2.5 to 8 mm, closing  before noon; sepals slightly unequal, 7 to 8 mm long, the outer ones a little shorter, oblong to narrowly elliptic-oblong, glabrous or sparsely hairy on the back with distinctly fimbriate margins; corolla is 5-lobed funnel-shaped, 1.5 cm long, glabrous, color variable around the world, pink or pale red to purple in the Philippines, and in Costa Rica may be pale red to violet, or white with a deep red-violet throat with contrasting white stamens and stigmas; stamens inserted in tube of corolla; filaments hairy at the base; ovary 2- to 4-celled, conical, densely pubescent; ovules 2 to 4; fruit a capsule, depressed globose with sharp point, bristly hairy; seeds 4 or less, 3.5 mm long, diameter 6 mm, hard, shiny, brown.  Distinguishing features of the plant are 3-lobed leaves, stems with milky sap, and the hirsute or hairy ovary" (Holm et al., 1997; p. 420).

"Usually small, herbaceous twiner, often on grasses or low shrubs, not high-climbing, with milky sap and rather small flowers; leaves cordate, acuminate, entire or 3-lobed, mostly 2-5 cm long (but up to 12 cm), longer than wide; petiole as long as blade or longer by half; stems somewhat angled, glabrous or pubescent; flowers 1 or few on peduncles as much as 10 cm long; calyx-lobes lanceolate acute, limb not broad; capsule about 6 mm wide, pubescent; seeds glabrous or with a few minute hairs"  (Stone, 1970; p. 494).

Habitat/ecology:  "It is found in upland cultivated crops, grasslands, waysides and waste places, and because of its creeping, twining habit , may overwhelm other vegetation in farmer's fields and in natural areas.  It is found from sea level to 750 m altitude" (Holm et al., 1997; p. 418).  "In various habitats from open, sunny hillsides to relatively dense forest in partial sun or deep shade" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; pp. 379-380).

"In Guam usually in old pastures or in savannahs" (Stone, 1970; p. 494).  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in low elevation, dry to mesic, disturbed sites" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 559-560). Arid lowlands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 313). In New Guinea, "a weed of roadsides, hedges and gardens; common in a few coastal areas" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 92).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Tropical America (West Indies per Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 559-560), now weedy throughout the tropics (Stone, 1970; p. 494).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1946) (voucher ID: PTBG 30969) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Fefan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 15) Voucher cited: Lorence 8132A (PTBG) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1997) (voucher ID: PTBG 27722) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba L.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 100) Voucher cited: Glassman 2773 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 81) Vouchers cited: S.F. Glassman 2773 (BISH), D.H. Lorence 9493 (PTBG) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2006) (voucher ID: PTBG 44900) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1968) (voucher ID: BNM 1175) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1992) (voucher ID: PTBG 23270) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba
French Polynesia Clipperton Island	Clipperton (Arue, Avera) Island		Sachet, M.-H. (1962) (p. 93)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 494) Vouchers cited: Stone 4712 (GUAM), Stone 4838 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. (2002) (p. 6) Vouchers cited: Oppenheimer H40021 (BISH), Oppenheimer H40025 (BISH) Locally common roadside weed.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 559-561)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2007) (p. 22) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H100644 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 559-561)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2006) (p. 11) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H30417 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 559-561) Voucher cited: Martin & Pemberton s. n. (BISH)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. Raymond (1990) (p. 37)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (pp. 45-46) Rare. Vouchers cited: Fosberg 39487, Whistler 11186, Whistler 11224
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. Raymond (1990) (p. 37)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1959) (p. 6) Voucher cited: Fosberg 39487 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1998) (voucher ID: PTBG 44986) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 43) Voucher: BMW 7072(BISH, CHR, BRI)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 103)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 60)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 101)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 60)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 98)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1968) (voucher ID: BNM 292) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1991) (voucher ID: BNM 99999996) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1977) (voucher ID: BNM 10021) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 226)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 98)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 60)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 98)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 60) Voucher: Lorence 9754 (PTBG, BNM, NY)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 46) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba L.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 92) Common in a few coastal areas.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 368) Common in waste places, borders of thickets, etc., in and about towns at low and medium altitudes.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 83)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 559-561)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (pp. 48-49)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (pp. 48-49)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced invasive	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Roadsides or fields; 0-800 m. Anhui, Guangdong, S. Shaanxi, Zhejiang.
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 223) In thickets, on grassy hillslopes or along roadside.
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 418)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 421)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 418)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 421)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 421)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 421)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 187)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 418)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 418)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 421)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 421)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 51) Naturalised
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Roadsides or fields; 0-800 m.
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 117)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. Arthur (1996) (p. 27)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1995) (voucher ID: PTBG 37872) Taxon name on voucher: Ipomoea triloba L.

Comments:  Can be introduced as a contaminant in rice (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 559-560).

Additional information:
Additional online information about Ipomoea triloba is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Ipomoea triloba as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Ipomoea triloba may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1968. Voucher specimen #BNM292(Blackburn, B. 202).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1968. Voucher specimen #BNM1175(Blackburn 247).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1977. Voucher specimen #BNM10021(Otobed, D.O. P-10021).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1991. Voucher specimen #BNM99999996(J. Anson, A. Sorge, C. Tellei s.n.).

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1959. Additional records of phanerogams from the northern Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 68. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 9 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1990. A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 330. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 100 pp.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James. 1997. World weeds: natural histories and distribution. John Wiley & Sons. 1129 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 3 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 628 pp.

Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro. 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research 8(2)/2004: 171-191.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1995. Voucher specimen #PTBG37872(Art Whistler 9785).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2008. Voucher specimen #PTBG46(David H. Lorence 9754).

Oppenheimer, Hank. 2007. New plant records from Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, and Hawai‘i for 2006. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2006. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 96:17-34.

Oppenheimer, Hank L. 2006. New Hawai‘i plant records for 2004. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2004-2005. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 88:10-15.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. 2002. New plant records from the main Hawaiian Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 69:1-14.

Sachet, M.-H. 1962. Geography and land ecology of Clipperton Island. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 86. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 115 pp.

Smith, Nicholas M. 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide. Environment Centre NT, Inc. 112 pp.

Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 227 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1993. The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 141 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Whistler, W. Arthur. 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica. 49 pp.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).