Hyptis capitata Jacq., Lamiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Reject, score: 17 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: batunes, botones

English: false ironwort, knobweed

Japanese: iganigakusa

Palauan: erur

Pohnpeian: pawehs pwetepwet

Spanish: biojo, cartagena amarilla, chirrite, cordón de fraile

Tahitian: maa uupo

Yapese: pathpath, t‘aiegarabao

Habit:  herb

Description:  "An erect subshrub 1/2-2 m tall, with ovate-oblong, acute, serrate, petiolate leaves, commonly 5-15 cm long and 2-6 cm wide; petiole to about 2-3 cm; blades glabrate or puberulent and dorsally glandular; peduncles axillary, commonly 2-9 cm long; heads subglobose, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter; flowers sessile, white, subtended by oblong-obovate bracts up to 8-12 mm long; calyx-lobes subulate, nearly equal, calyx-tube glabrous at extreme base, hirsute medially, pubescent distally, 3-4 mm long in flower, enlarging to nearly 1 cm in fruit; corolla 5-6 mm long, white with faint purplish spots on upper lip; filaments pubescent basally; nutlets brownish-black with a narrow white hilum, about 1 mm long" (Stone, 1970; p. 511).

Habitat/ecology:  Humid tropics. Common on savanna lands in Guam (Stone, 1970; p. 511). In Australia, "roadsides, disturbed or overgrazed areas, watercourses, pastures and open forests where soil is well drained" (Smith, 2002; p. 61).

Propagation:  "Seed in flower heads spread by water.  Seeds also dispersed by animals, humans, vehicles (including slashers and machinery), and when attached to fur, clothing and mud." (Smith, 2002; p. 61).

"It seeds prolifically each year which ensures survival.  The seeds, however, are light-sensitive and germination requires exposure to light.  On the other hand, exposure to far-red radiation, which is predominant where sunlight is filtered through a canopy of leaves, hinders germination.  Thus, since knobweed is often found along margins and tracks of rainforests, there will be a large quantity of ungerminated seeds present which provides a nucleus of infestation when these areas are cleared..."  (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992; pp. 488-490).

Native range:  Central America from southern Mexico to Panama, now widespread as a weed.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 240)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 6)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 655722) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 655723) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 240)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 104) Voucher cited: Glassman 2424 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (pp. 100-101) Vouchers cited: E. Albert 19 (NY, PTBG), E. Albert 91 (NY, PTBG), T.W. Flynn 6081 (NY, PTBG), F.R. Fosberg 58533 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2415 (BISH), T. Hosokawa 6097 (BISH), D.H. Lorence 9492 (BISH, COM, NY, PTBG, US), S. perlman 21391 (PTBG), L. Raulerson LR19630 (PTBG), L. Stemmerman 2914 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 830 (BISH), C.Y.C. Wong 50 (BISH) Invasive
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 150565) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 150567) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 433623) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 438044) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 447080) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1990) (voucher ID: PTBG 23350) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1996) (voucher ID: PTBG 24537) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 41824) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2006) (voucher ID: PTBG 44895) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2004) (voucher ID: PTBG 46336) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 240)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 150566) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2004) (voucher ID: PTBG 42406) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 39563) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 128) Voucher cited: BRY 24825
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 3845 (PAP), W.A. Whistler & M. Guérin 16 (PAP), J.-M. Veillon & M. Guérin 66 (PAP), F.R. Fosberg 65009 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 491114) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 493117) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 607033) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 511) Voucher cited: Stone 3855 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 240)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 78088) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 81622) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 81624) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 150604) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1957) (voucher ID: BISH 150610) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1945) (voucher ID: BISH 150611) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 150625) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 401456) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 507569) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 572825) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 649439) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 1000196) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R. (1995) (p. 21) Voucher cited: K. Nagata 3788 (BISH)
New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) New Guinea Island	New Guinea Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 189)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 16, 85)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 19)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1996) (voucher ID: BISH 651371) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (2005) (voucher ID: BNM 394) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2005) (voucher ID: PTBG 46278) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 240)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 16, 81)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 19)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1967) (voucher ID: BNM 402) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1967) (voucher ID: BNM 401) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 240)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 16, 81)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 19)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1967) (voucher ID: BISH 81623) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 16, 81)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1970) (voucher ID: BNM 400) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago		Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 488) Scattered; prefers wet soil.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (pp. 416-417) A weed in the settled areas, occurring in open waste places, fallow rice paddies, etc.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 70)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 20) Voucher cited: Whistler 3933
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 67) Voucher: Flynn 6938 (PTBG, US, SAMOA), Flynn 6943 (PTBG, US)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 309) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 319) Taxon name on voucher: Hyptis capitata
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Gizo Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Guadalcanal Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 61) One population at Kakadu.
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 61)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 50) Naturalised
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 66, 77)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 116)

Comments:  This species and other Hyptis species are common on Guam, but not present on many other islands in Micronesia or the Pacific. Since these Hyptis species are well-known weeds, they should be excluded where not already present.

Very prevalent in Samoa (Space & Flynn, 2002).

Control: 

Physical: "Single plants or small groups forming an incipient infestation should be grubbed before flowering and burnt, taking care to cut the root well below the crown to prevent re-establishment from the perennial rootstock"  (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992; pp. 488-490).

Additional information:
Photo and additional information at the University of Guam "Plants of Guam" web site.

Additional online information about Hyptis capitata is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Hyptis capitata as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Hyptis capitata may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1967. Voucher specimen #BNM402(Cheatham 139).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1967. Voucher specimen #BNM401(Blackburn, B. 146).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1970. Voucher specimen #BNM400(Salsedo, Carl A. 326).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 2005. Voucher specimen #BNM394(Costion 394).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 150625 (Thompson, J.B. 64).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1933. Voucher specimen #BISH 447080 (Hosokawa, T. 6097).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 78088 (Swezey, O.H.; collector's voucher number unknown).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 150566 (Takamatsu, M. 1924).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 150567 (Takamatsu, M. 830).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1945. Voucher specimen #BISH 150611 (Conover, J.T. 559).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 150565 (Glassman, S.F. 2415).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1954. Voucher specimen #BISH 150604 (Fosberg, F.R. 35424).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1954. Voucher specimen #BISH 572825 (Fosberg, F.R. 35424).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1957. Voucher specimen #BISH 150610 (Fosberg, F.R. 39196).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 401456 (Whiting, M.G. 303).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 81622 (Evans, M. 704).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 81624 (Evans, M. 1551).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 655723 (Evans, M. 2190).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1967. Voucher specimen #BISH 81623 (Hardy, S. 61).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 433623 (Stemmermann, R.L. 2914).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 438044 (Fosberg, F.R. 58533).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1981. Voucher specimen #BISH 491114 (Whistler, W.A. 16).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1981. Voucher specimen #BISH 507569 (Wright, J. 15).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 493117 (Florence, J. 3845).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 655722 (Raulerson, L. 1669).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 649439 (Herbst, D.R. 7086).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000196 (Herbst, D.R. 7086).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 607033 (Fosberg, F.R. 65009).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1996. Voucher specimen #BISH 651371 (Victor, S. LR26406).

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

Merlin, M./Kigfas, A./Keene, T./Juvik, J. 1996. Giddi nge gakiiy nu Wa‘ab: Plants, People and Ecology in Yap State. Program on Environment, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, 121 pp.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 3 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 628 pp.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG309(Tim Flynn 6943).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG319(Tim Flynn 6938).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2005. Voucher specimen #PTBG46278(Craig Costion 479).

Orapa, Warea. 2005. Warea Orapa, Weed Mangement Officer, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, pers. com. (Trip Report, Solomon Islands, 19 April to 10 May, 2005).

Parsons, W. T./Cuthbertson, E. G. 1992. Noxious weeds of Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne/Sydney. 692 pp.

Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty]. 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 638 pp. ISBN 9980-66-000-7.

Smith, Nicholas M. 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide. Environment Centre NT, Inc. 112 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 227 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane. 2000. Invasive plant species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 31 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R. 1995. Contributions to the Flora of Hawai‘i. IV. New Records and name changes. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Miller, Scott, E., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 42:13-27.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

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