Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw., Asparagaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Agave gigantea D. Dietr.; Furcraea gigantea Vent.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: giant cabuya, green aloe, Mauritian hemp, Mauritius hemp

Fijian: natali

French: aloès vert, cadère, chanvre de Maurice, choca vert

Hawaiian: malina

Maori (Cook Islands): piāni, rōpiāni

Niuean: toua

Spanish: cááñamo de Mauritania, maguey, pita floja, pita gigante

Tongan: fau malila, faumalila

Habit:  succulent

Description:  "Leaves bright green, rigid, straight or curved, up to 20-25 dm long, 1.4-2 dm wide, " with a few widely spaced marginal prickles, especially toward base, these 4-10 mm long, apex with a short blunt spine.  Flowers strongly fragrant, in inflorescences 6-12 m long, bulbils usually formed after flowering; tepals white to greenish white or pale yellowish green, 2.5-3.3 cm long, outer ones 1-1.4 cm wide, inner ones 1.4-1.8 cm wide"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1350).

"Grande herbacée succulente reconnaissable à sa rosette de grandes feuilles atteignant 2 à 3 m de longueur, à ses inflorescences dressées de 4 à 12 m de hauteur à allure de « mâts » portant des inflorescences de fleurs pendantes de couleur verdâtre et de nombreuses bulbilles" (Meyer, 2008; p. 32).

Habitat/ecology:  "In Puerto Rico, Mauritius hemp grows in moist areas that receive from about 1200 to 2500 mm of mean annual precipitation from near sea level to 1,000 m in elevation. The species grows in all types of well-drained soils, including poor and eroded soils, and frequently grows on rocks, cliffs, and rarely in crotches of trees. It is resistant to short-term drought and salt spray and can survive temperatures as low as -7 to -4° C. Growth is best in full sun, which most often leads to successful flowering. Mauritius hemp also grows in partial but not heavy shade. When plants are young, competition with tall grass, weeds, shrubs, and trees is a critical limiting factor. Cattle graze and often completely uproot small plants. They are ignored by cattle once they become large (author's observation, Desert-Tropicals Nursery 2003). This species, as others of the genus, has crassulacean acid metabolism by which it fixes CO2 during the night and incorporates it into carbohydrates during the day (personal communication with Ernesto Medina, plant physiologist, Centro de Ecología, Instituto de Investigaciones, Caracas, Venezuela)"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).  This large, rosette plant rarely grows above 1.5 m though the inflorescence may reach 5 m.  This plant grows between sea level and 1,000 m in dry habitats (Smith, 1985; pp. 190-191).

In Fiji, "cultivated and sparingly naturalized near sea level"  (Smith, 1979; pp. 155-156).  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized and often locally abundant in dry to mesic, disturbed sites on slopes, rocky ledges, and in pastures, 0-615 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1350); "displaces other plants in drier forests and pastures; plants encroach across trails, a hazard especially on cliffside trails; woody stalks block roads and trails when they fall"  (Motooka et al., 2003)..  In Niue, "extensively naturalised in many open eastern and southern areas"  (Sykes, 1970; p. 217). In New Caledonia, "maintenant largement répandu à l'état spontané et souvent très envahissant" (MacKee, 1994; p. 13). In New Zealand, "naturalised garden escape; in semi-shade" (Healy & Edgar, 1980; p. 68).

Propagation:  The inflorescence produces bulbils rather than seeds that are dispersed locally, forming dense monotypic thickets. "Gravity is the only known natural means of dispersal. The presence of scattered individuals indicates other transport, perhaps fruit bats"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

Native range:  "Mauritius hemp is native to the Greater Antilles, and from Guadaloupe south through northern South America to Brazil (Grisebach 1963, Howard 1979). The species has been widely planted"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 21) "Naturalised near Neds Beach and the eastern edge of the airstrip". Voucher cited: J.G. Conran 639 (K, NSW)
Chile (offshore islands) Rapa Nui (Easter) Island	Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua)	introduced invasive cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2008) (pp. 32, 42) "Nous l’avons vue plantée dans le village de Hanga Roa en baie de Bahiá Apina Nui, avec de nombreuses plantules au sol issues des bulbilles, ainsi que quelques individus isolés à Anakena. Une autre espèce voisine, Agave sp., indéterminée car stérile lors de cette mission, est également plantée et subspontanée en zone littorale dans cette baie" (Meyer, 2008; p. 32).
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 89) "Potential invader", lowlands.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 6) Furcraea cf. foetida Haw. or possibly Agave sp.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 155-156) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 945 Sparingly naturalized.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Namuka-i-Lau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 155-156) Voucher cited: Bryan 472 Sparingly naturalized.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 36285) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 36286) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 699203) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 155-156) Vouchers cited: DA 16037, DA 11420 Sparingly naturalized.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 34097) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 34098) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 101751) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 699204) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 699205) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 699206) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 699207) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea gigantea
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 699210) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 67)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 94) "Potential invader".
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 103-104)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1350)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim (2011) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Starr, Starr, & Higashino 080210-02 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1350)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1350)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1350)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1350)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1350)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92) Not seen by Thaman et al. May have been confused with Agave sisalana.
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 100)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 379) Largement répandue à l'état spontané et souvent très envahissante.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 13) Vouchers cited: Balansa s.n., Däniker 2836, Buchholz 1328, MacDaniels 2062, MacKee 4064, Nothis 78 (NOU)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Kermadec Islands	introduced invasive	Healy, A. J./Edgar, E. (1980) (p. 68) "On Kawau Id in the Kermadecs both spiny-leaved and smooth-leaved plants are found".
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (pp. 152-153)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. (1996) (p. 460) Probably now eradicated.
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 217) Voucher cited: CHR 169988
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 7)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 50)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 35) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9757 (BISH) "Established, especially along the eastern part of the island in the vicinity of Liku where it is a troublesome weed".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 15)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Drake, D. R./Whistler, W. A./Motley, T. J./Imada, C. T. (1996)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 600918) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 53)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 81) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15287
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 101835) Taxon name on voucher: Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107) "Dry lowlands".

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Queensland Herbarium (2002) (p. 4)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 366) Ornamental.
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Healy, A. J./Edgar, E. (1980) (p. 68) Voucher cited: W.R. Sykes (CHR 175824)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 43) Cultivated only

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. (1991) (pp. 51-61)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Très envahissant"
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Baret, Stephane/Rouget, Mathieu/Richardson, David M./Lavergne, Christophe/Egoh, Benis/Dupont, Joel/Strasberg, Dominique (2006) (p. 758)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Agalega Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. (1983) (p. 126)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Alphonse Island		Robertson, I. A. D./Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 178) Voucher cited: Robertson 2842 (K)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Coetivy Island		Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 145)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Cousin Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Fosberg 52135 (US)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Frégate Island		Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. (1983) (p. 44) Voucher cited: Robertson 2656
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Marie-Louise Island		Wilson, J. R. (1983) (p. 188)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Poivre Island		Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 167)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced invasive	Francis, John K., ed. (2009)

Comments:  Invasive in the Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia (Makatea, Hiva Oa) (Meyer, 1998). Naturalized and spreading on ‘Eua, Tonga (Space & Flynn, 2001).

Control:  "La lutte manuelle par coupe des mâts et des rosettes de feuilles suivie d’un traitement chimique par injection dans la tige d’un herbicide à base de glyphosate sont réalisables" (Meyer, 2008; p. 32).

Chemical: "Tolerant of aqueous sprays of glyphosate, hexazinone, and triclopyr and to soil applications of hexazinone. Sensitive to foliar sprays of 2,4-D in diesel and very sensitive to foliar sprays of triclopyr in diesel or in crop oil. Drizzle applications of triclopyr in oil at 1 lb /acre effective in clearing trails of Mauritius hemp"  (Motooka et al., 2003). 

Cut down and treat the stump with Garlon (Silvia Ziller, communications to Aliens Listserver 10 November 2009).

Additional information:
Excerpt from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Fact sheet from "Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions" (PDF format).

Additional online information about Furcraea foetida is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Furcraea foetida as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Furcraea foetida may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Baret, Stephane/Rouget, Mathieu/Richardson, David M./Lavergne, Christophe/Egoh, Benis/Dupont, Joel/Strasberg, Dominique. 2006. Current distribution and potential extent of the most invasive alien plant species on La Réunion (Indian Ocean, Mascarene islands). Austral Ecology (2006) 31, 747-758.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1924. Voucher specimen #BISH 36285 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 472).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1924. Voucher specimen #BISH 36286 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 472).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1924. Voucher specimen #BISH 699203 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 472).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 101751 (Smith, A.C. 4629).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 699210 (Smith, A.C. 4629).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 101835 (Yuncker, T.G. 15287).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 34097 (Doroiveibau, K. 11420).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 699206 (Doroiveibau, K. 11420).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 699207 (Doroiveibau, K. 11420).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 34098 (Parham, J.W. 16037).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 699204 (Parham, J.W. 16037).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 699205 (Parham, J.W. 16037).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1990. Voucher specimen #BISH 600918 (Whistler, W.A. 7376).

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Drake, D. R./Whistler, W. A./Motley, T. J./Imada, C. T. 1996. Rain forest vegetation of ‘Eua Island, Kingdom of Tonga. New Zealand Journal of Botany 34:65-77.

Fosberg, F. R. 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. 1983. List of the recorded vascular flora of Agalega. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Francis, John K., ed. 2009. Wildland Shrubs of the United States and its Territories: Thamnic Descriptions General Technical Report IITF-WB-1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service International Institute of Tropical Forestry and Shrub Sciences Laboratory (online resource).

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Healy, A. J./Edgar, E. 1980. Flora of New Zealand, Volume III: Adventive cyperaceous, petalous & spathaceous monocotyledons. Government Printer, Wellington, New Zealand. 220 pp.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. 1991. Effects of alien plant invasions on native vegetation remnants on La Reunion (Mascarenes Islands, Indian Ocean). Environmental Conservation 18 (1):51-61.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2008. Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques) [Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 62 pp. .

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Queensland Herbarium. 2002. Invasive Naturalised Plants in Southeast Queensland, alphabetical by genus. Modified from: Batianoff, George N. and Butler, Don W. (2002). Assessment of Invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland. Appendix. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 27-34. 11 pp.

Robertson, I. A. D./Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. 1983. List of plants collected on Alphonse Island, Amirantes. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. 1983. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. 1983. List of plants of Poivre Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. 1983. Vegetation of Frégate Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Smith, Clifford W. 1985. Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai‘i's Native Biota. In: Stone, Charles P. and Scott, J. Michael, eds. Hawai‘i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and Management. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Manoa.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim. 2011. New plant records from midway Atoll, Maui and Kaho‘olawe. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2009-2010. Part II: Plants. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 110:23-35.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1977. Kermadec Islands flora: an annotated checklist. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 219, Wellington. 216 pp.

Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. 1996. New records and other information on the vascular flora of the Kermadec Islands. New Zealand Journal of Botany 34:447-462.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

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