Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem., Moraceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Low risk, score: -5 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: yin du rong

English: India rubber fig, India rubber tree, Indian rubber tree, rubber plant

French: arbre à caoutchouc

Maori (Cook Islands): rapa

Marshallese: wõjke-roba

Palauan: komunokí, komunoki

Pohnpeian: rapah, repah

Samoan: tagamimi palagi

Spanish: caucho

Yapese: gak'iynigoma

Habit:  tree

Description:  "...A wide-spreading evergreen tree to 30 m tall which develops descending aerial roots to form a banyan. All parts contain copious white latex. Plants start from cutting as erect stems but soon develop several heavy spreading branches. Twigs are encircled by distinctive leaf scars and branches have thin smooth to finely rough gray-brown bark. The plants tend to branch at the base, and both trunks and branches develop slender dangling aerial roots, which quickly thicken to become strong downwardly branched supporting roots which may coalesce and eventually hide the original trunk. Spreading surface roots may also be formed. The shiny, leathery, broadly oval leaves are initially enclosed in a long pink papery scale which leaves a circular scar as it falls. The leaves are 7-20 cm long, with smooth edges and blunt pointed tips and are paler below than above. In India, at least, pairs of oblong yellowish-green figs about 2 cm long develop among the leaves on the branches of older trees." (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 35).

Habitat/ecology:  Moist tropical forests. The seeds can germinate in the tree crowns and thence grow downwards, making it extremely difficult to control. In New Caledonia, "introduit au 19ème siècle, peut-être comme arbre à caoutchouc; parfois naturalisé" (MacKee, 1994; p. 102).

Propagation:  Requires a specific wasp for pollination. Where pollination occurs and fruits form, the seeds are spread by birds.

Native range:  India and southern Asia (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 35).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 35)
Chile (offshore islands) Juan Fernández Islands	Isla Más a Tierra (Robinson Crusoe Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Atkinson, Rachel/Sawyer, John (2011)
Chile (offshore islands) Juan Fernández Islands	Isla Más a Tierra (Robinson Crusoe Island)	introduced cultivated	Danton, Philippe/Perrier, Christophe/Martinez Reyes, Guido (2006) (pp. 483, 529, 553) "Algunos jóvenes individuos están plantados en jardines del pueblo de San Juan Bautista.  El porvenir dirá si pueden acostumbrarse al clima insular".
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 80)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 67)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 614586) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Dublon (Tonowas) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1935) (voucher ID: BISH 162487) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 27)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 54)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 80) Voucher cited: Glassman 2560 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 114) Vouchers cited: S.F. Glassman 2560 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 723 (BISH)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 162331) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 162478) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 54)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 175-176) Vouchers cited: DA 11805, DA 5625
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 14654) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 186) Voucher cited: BRY 26367a
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 251) Voucher cited: Stone 4913 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 54)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced cultivated	Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral R. (2005) (p. 409)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced cultivated	Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral R. (2005) (p. 409)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced invasive	Toyoda, Takeshi (2003) (p. 279) Naturalized
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Ailinglaplap (Ailinglapalap) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 54)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 54)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 101)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 110)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 172)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 102) Voucher cited: MacKee 5251 Spontan&233;
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 102) Vouchers cited: Däniker 2684 (Z), Baumann 6461, MacKee 37666, MacKee 38807
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 23)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 42)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 54)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 80)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 428462) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1968) (voucher ID: BNM 534) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 80)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 80)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	introduced invasive	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 137)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced cultivated	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 51) Planted for ornamental purposes.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Oeno Atoll	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Oeno Atoll	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 10952 (PAP) Cultivée
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Oeno Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 662491) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 157)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 70)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 66)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28830) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 74)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êfaté (Efete) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 424758) Taxon name on voucher: Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (p. 36)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) 800-1500 m. W. Yunnan
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 61) Ornamental.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 41) Casual

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (pp. 35, 114)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2011)

Comments:  A problem tree in Florida. Planting of this species is prohibited in Miami-Dade County, Florida (U.S.) (Hunsberger, 2001).

Planted trees on Pohnpei (J. Space, pers. com.).

Control: 

Chemical: "Pending the results of field trials stems (recognisable by branches and leaf scars), pendant roots and visible surface roots of smaller and more open trees should all be liberally treated with 10% Garlon 600 in diesel oil. Do not treat Ficus elastica by stem injection or cut stump treatment since the copious emission of latex by cut stems and roots will prevent glyphosate entry." (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 35).

Additional information:
Report (PDF format) from US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Haleakala Field Station, Hawaii "Plants of Hawaii".

Additional online information about Ficus elastica is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Ficus elastica as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Ficus elastica may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Atkinson, Rachel/Sawyer, John. 2011. Naturalized species in the Juan Fernández Archipelago, Chile. Unpublished spreadsheet.

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1968. Voucher specimen #BNM534(Blackburn, B. 218).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1935. Voucher specimen #BISH 162487 (Takamatsu, M. 135).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 162478 (Takamatsu, M. 723).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 162331 (Glassman, S.F. 2560).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1959. Voucher specimen #BISH 14654 (Koroiveibau, D. 11805).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 28830 (Bristol, M.L. 2303).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 428462 (Blackburn, B.S. 218).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 424758 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1605).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 614586 (Sykes, W.R. 399670).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1991. Voucher specimen #BISH 662491 (Florence 10952).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Danton, Philippe/Perrier, Christophe/Martinez Reyes, Guido. 2006. Nouveau catalogue de la flore vaculaire de l'archipel Juan Fernández (Chile) [Nuevo catálogo de la flora vacular del Archipélago Juan Fernández (Chile)]. Acta Bot. Gallica 153(4):399-587.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J. 1997. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 1. Paris. Editions de l'Orstom, Institut Français de Recherche Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 34. 393 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Hunsberger, A. G. B. 2001. Invasive and banned plants of Miami-Dade County. U. of Fl. Extension. 3 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 2 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 530 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty]. 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 638 pp. ISBN 9980-66-000-7.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 41 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral R. 2005. A tropical garden flora: plants cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and other tropical places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 908 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

Toyoda, Takeshi. 2003. Flora of the Bonin Islands. Aboc & Co. 522 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

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Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

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Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).