Euphorbia hypericifolia L., Euphorbiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 7 (Go to the risk assessment).

Other Latin names:  Chamaesyce glomerifera Millsp.; Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.; Euphorbia glomifera Millsp.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: tong nai cao

English: beach spurge, graceful sandmat, graceful spurge

Marshallese: bwilbwilikkaj

Palauan: karkar, kerkar

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Erect to ascending annual herb up to 80 cm in height, with glabrous stems and milky sap.  Leaves simple, opposite, blade oblong to oblanceolate, 0.8-4 cm long, round to subacute at the tip, oblique at the base; surfaces glabrous; margins serrate; petiole 1-2 mm long.  Inflorescence of short, nearly leafless axillary cymes of several cyathia, each cyathium with a tiny, glabrous, 4-lobed involucre bearing 5 glands and usually a white or pink appendage.  Corolla absent.  Female flower 1, consisting of a superior, 3-lobed ovary with 3 styles; male flowers 2-20, tiny, consisting of 1 stamen.   Fruit a glabrous, 3-lobed, subglobose schizocarp 1-1.5 mm long, broadest near the middle, splitting into 3 one-seeded segments.  Distinguishable by its glabrous, herbaceous stems, milky sap, opposite leaves, leafless axillary cymes, tiny, white-flowered cyathia (a kind of inflorescence), and tiny 3-lobed splitting fruit.  Similar to Euphorbia hyssopifolia, which differs in having leafy cymes and narrower linear-oblong leaves."  (Whistler & Steele, 1999; p. 47).

"A low herb with slender stems and elliptical leaves about 1.3 cm long, usually shorter, distally serrulate-denticulate, usually reddish-purplish, and the stems reddish; cyathia in small cymes in upper axils; bracts white; capsules with forked styles"  (Stone, 1970; p. 374).

Habitat/ecology:  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized and relatively common in low elevation, dry, disturbed habitats"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 609-610).  In Fiji, "sparingly found as a weed along roadsides, in cultivated areas and fields, and in waste places" (Smith, 1981; p. 575). In New Caledonia, "cette espèce, arrivée paraît-il récemment, se répand dans les jardins et terrains vagues" (MacKee, 1994; p. 51). "Occasional on roadsides and other disturbed places" (Whistler, 1988; p. 18).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Southern United States to Argentina and the West Indies, widely naturalized in the Paleotropics" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 609-610).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 48)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 34833) Taxon name on voucher: Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 34776) Taxon name on voucher: Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Whistler 1309
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Sykes 27
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1992) (voucher ID: PTBG 43858) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1992) (voucher ID: PTBG 44173) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Northern Mariana Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Chuuk Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Namoluk (Nómwunuuk) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 16) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. (2002) (p. 62)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1996) (voucher ID: PTBG 24867) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia L.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 85) Vouchers cited: E. Albert 20b (NY, PTBG), F.R. Fosbert 58442 (BISH), P.Raynor 167 (NY, PTBG) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 41834) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 43823) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 575) Vouchers cited: DA 12608, DA 11307, DA 12223
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 104) Voucher cited: Florence 9261
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (1997) (pp. 47-48)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 9261 (PAP) Adventice
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 374) As Euphorbia glomerifera Millspaugh) Wheeler
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	French Frigate Shoals	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 609-610)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 609-610)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 609-610)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kure Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 609-610)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kure Atoll	introduced	Starr, Forest/Martz, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2001) (p. 10) Previously reported, not observed in this survey.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 11) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H40123 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 609-610)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 11) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H70125 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 609-610) Voucher cited: Forbes s. n. (BISH)
Kiribati Line Islands	Flint Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, Harold/Fosberg, F. Raymond (1937) (p. 4) Voucher cited: St. John & Fosberg 17470 (BISH)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 25)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Enderbury Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 24) Voucher cited: Clegern 173 (BISH)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 24) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & Walker 30216 (US), Degener & Hateway 21300 (BISH), Fosberg & Stoddart 54780 (US), Fosberg 55718 (US, BISH, K), Clapp P-71-23 (US), Clegern 55 (BISH)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	introduced	Luomala, Katharine (1951) (p. 173)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Abemama Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 76) Voucher: Imada 2003-146 (BISH 697758)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 77)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1972) (voucher ID: PTBG 31469) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 73)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1988) (p. 13)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1985) (voucher ID: PTBG 23948) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak, Eniwetok) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 47)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1962) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Fosberg 41402a (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 8) "Uncommon; in ruderal areas and around abandoned houses".
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 47) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 39489, Whistler 11159
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 13) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31166 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1998) (voucher ID: PTBG 43975) Taxon name on voucher: Euphorbia hypericifolia
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Rongerik (Roñdik) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 47)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 7) "Uncommon; few plants observed by wall of former R&D farm".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 91)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Mili (Mile) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2010) (p. A14) Common; in ruderal areas, Mili.
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 130) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58658 (US), Thaman & Manner 72 (SUVA), Hassall 223 (SUVA), Swarbrick 9555 (BRIU)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 51) Vouchers cited: MacKee 23403, MacKee 24832, MacKee 30198, MacKee 35841, MacKee 36362
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 89) As Euphorbia glomifera in Sykes. Voucher cited: CHR 169726
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 18)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 32)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 40)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 103)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 137)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 100) Voucher: BMW 6564 (BISH, BRI, GUAM)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 62)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Kayangel (Ngcheangel) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 8) Voucher: Lorence 9793 (PTBG, BNM, NY,TAMU, US)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Kayangel (Ngcheangel) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 49615) Taxon name on voucher: Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 106)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 62) Voucher: Lorence 9742 (PTBG, BISH, BNM, NY, US)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 49561) Taxon name on voucher: Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Whistler 931
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Whistler 2068
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Buelow 1505
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Tuvalu Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced invasive	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 57)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 609-610)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-5)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Palmyra Atoll	Palmyra Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 25)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1959) (p. 14) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 33618, Fosberg 33622
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 10) Voucher citeds: Fosberg 43520 (US), Sachet 870 (US)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 13) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 33618 (US), Fosberg 33622 (US)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 92)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced invasive	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Fields, roads, scrub. Beijing, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Yunnan.
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (pp. 180-181) Along roadside or in shade or wet places.
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 156)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 25) Naturalised
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Fields, roads, scrub.

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. Arthur (1996) (p. 27)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1995) (voucher ID: PTBG 37920) Taxon name on voucher: Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.
Maldives Maldive Islands	Maldive Islands		Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 24)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 156)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Euphorbia hypericifolia is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Euphorbia hypericifolia as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Euphorbia hypericifolia may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Florence, J. 1997. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 1. Paris. Editions de l'Orstom, Institut Français de Recherche Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 34. 393 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 58. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 37 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1959. Vegetation and flora of Wake Island. Atoll Research Bulletin 67. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 20 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1988. Vegetation of Bikini Atoll. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 315:1-28.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 39 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 393. 60 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. 2002. Invasive/weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. In: Invasive species and their management. Micronesica Suppl. 6:61-65.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Luomala, Katharine. 1951. Plants of Canton Island, Phoenix Islands. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 20(11):157-174.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1972. Voucher specimen #PTBG31469 (Derral Herbst 2769).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1985. Voucher specimen #PTBG23948 (F. R. Fosberg 65168).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1992. Voucher specimen #PTBG43858 (Art Whistler 8600).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1992. Voucher specimen #PTBG44173 (Art Whistler 8441).

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