Dioscorea bulbifera L., Dioscoreaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: magnaheugo

Chuukese: ápwereka, pureka, pureka, puruka, pwer, pwereka, pwerh

English: aerial yam, air potato, air yam, bitter yam, cheeky yam, potato yam, wild yam, yam

Fijian: kaile, kaile manu, kaile ndranu, kaile nganga, sarau

French: igname bulbifère, pousse en l'air

Hawaiian: hoi, pi‘oi

Kosraean: ellal

Kwara‘ae: dau fasia, dau kwasi

Maori (Cook Islands): ‘oi

Marshallese: mata

Niuean: hoi

Palauan: belloi

Pohnpeian: palai

Samoan: soi, soi

Satawalese: pelai

Spanish: ñame de gunda, papa voladora

Tahitian: hoi

Tongan: hoi

Wallisian: soi

Yapese: rook, yoi

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Tuberous vine, tubers usually globose or pear-shaped, sometimes lobed, some edible (in cultivated races), others (in wild races) causing nausea or fatal; flesh yellowish; stems generally bearing bulbils, twining to the left (clockwise); leaves broadly cordate, 20-30 cm long, 20-30 cm wide, 5-nerved, lower surface duller green than upper,  short to long petiolate, petioles sometimes slightly winged, but stems not so; male flowers on pendent inflorescence, from bracteate (rarely leafy) stems, up to 50 (even 100) cm long; whitish or pinkish; female flowers on pendent axillary inflorescences; capsules winged, wings to 20 x 9 mm, rounded at both ends"  (Stone, 1970; pp. 127-128).

Habitat/ecology:  "Probably an intentional aboriginal introduction into Polynesia. It is common to locally abundant in plantations and on roadsides, as well as being naturalized in secondary and sometimes in primary forests" (Whistler, 1983; p. 80).

In Hawai‘i, "a Polynesian introduction, naturalized primarily in mesic areas, especially shaded mesic valleys and disturbed mesic forest, 5-670 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1437).  In Fiji, "cultivated and also naturalized, occurring in various types of forest from near sea level to 900 m" (Smith, 1979; pp. 168-169).  "Common in plantations and secondary forest" (Whistler, 1988; p. 45).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  East Africa to Polynesia (Stone, 1970; pp. 127-128), probably an early introduction to Pacific islands.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Aunu‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Anon. (1988) (p. 1)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107) ?
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Dublon (Tonowas) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Lukunor (Núkúnooch) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Nama Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Namoluk (Nómwunuuk) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Namoluk (Nómwunuuk) Atoll		Marshall, Mae/Fosberg, F. R. (1975) (p. 31) Voucher cited: Marshall 63 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Nomwin (Nómwiin) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Pis Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	native	Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. (1989) (p. 41) Voucher cited: Manner & Mallon 241 (GUAM)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Satawan Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Udot Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Ulalu (Romonum) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2005) (p. 15) Common.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pingelap Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 109) Vouchers cited: Glassman 2466 (US), Kanehira 785 (NY)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. (1969) (p. 5) Voucher cited: Fosberg 46689 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Faraulep (Faraulap) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ifalik (Ifaluk) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Satawal Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Satawal Island	native	Fosberg, F. R. (1969) (p. 5) Voucher cited: Fosberg 46898 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 168-169) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 890
Fiji Fiji Islands	Makongai Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 168-169) Voucher cited: Tothill 855
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mamanuthas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 168-169) Voucher cited: O. & I. Degener 31975
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 168-169) Voucher cited: Smith 820
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 168-169) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 267, 406; Degener 14303, DA 12664 (Melville et al. 7039), Smith 9604, DA 7367, DA 5942, DA 6058
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yasawas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 168-169) Voucher cited: DA 13650
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 325)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 325)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 22) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 64816 (US), Fosberg 64820 (US) Rare in thickets.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 325)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 325) Vouchers cited: BRY 26497, BRY 26510
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 325) Voucher cited: BRY 26542a
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 325) Voucher cited: BRY 26038
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 127-128) Voucher cited: MacGregor 396
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1437)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1437)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1437)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1437)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1437)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007) Also f. domestica (Makino) Makino et Nemoto
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	possibly introduced	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 40)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	native	Jaffré, T./Morat, P./Veillon, J-M./Rigault, F./Dagostini, G. (2001) (p. 44)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced abo. intro.	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 231) Vouchers cited: CHR 169797, CHR 169799, CHR 169803
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 45)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 51)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 37) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9646 (BISH), Yuncker 9668 (BISH), Yuncker 9895 (BISH), Yuncker 9998 (BISH), Yuncker 10020 (BISH), Yuncker 10107 (BISH) "Common in thickets throughout the island".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 49)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 103)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 101)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 97)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 97)
Palau Rock Islands	Aulupse‘el Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Palau Sonsorol Group	Sonsorol Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 107)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 45)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 66)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Voucher cited: Soakai 639
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Tofua Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Vouchers cited: Scarth-Johnson 20, Scarth-Johnson 66, Buelow 460
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 82) "Frequent throughout Tonga".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Vouchers cited: Parks 16140, Yuncker 15383, Hotta 4524
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 82) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15383
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 15088, Hotta 5654!, Hotta 6909 (n.s.), Buelow 87, Whistler 6765
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 82) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15088
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Late Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1981) (p. 352)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Late Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Voucher cited: Buelow & Sykes 213
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuafo‘ou Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Voucher cited: Buelow 2138
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuatoputapu Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Vouchers cited: Hurlimann 650, Kirch 205, Kirch 347
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuatoputapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 82) Voucher cited: Hürlimann 650
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Tafahi Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Voucher cited: Hurlimann 425
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Tafahi Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 82) Voucher cited: Hürlimann 425
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 88) Vouchers cited: Crosby 253, Hotta 4972!
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 82) Cited: Crosby
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 45)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. (2001) (p. 152)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	native	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 20)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Additional information:  Information on this prohibited species from the Miami-Dade County [Florida] web site.

Additional online information about Dioscorea bulbifera is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Dioscorea bulbifera may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Anon. 1988. Weed list for American Samoa by cropping system. Checklist dated 07/13/88, origin unknown. 3 pp.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. 2001. Plant invaders. Earthscan Publications, Ltd., London. 241 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1969. Plants of Satawal Island, Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 132. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 13 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. 1969. A collection of plants from Fais, Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 133. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Jaffré, T./Morat, P./Veillon, J-M./Rigault, F./Dagostini, G. 2001. Composition and characterisation of the native flora of New Caledonia. Documents Scientifiques et Techniques, II4, IRD, Centre de Noum&#eacute;a, 121 p.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Pohnpei. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 21 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2005. Botanical survey of the Yela River valley, Kosrae, F.S.M. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii. 19 pp.

Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. 1989. An Annotated list of the vascular plants of Pulawat Atoll. Micronesica 22:23-63.

Marshall, Mae/Fosberg, F. R. 1975. The natural history of Namoluk Atoll, eastern Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 189. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 53 pp + photos.

Merlin, M./Juvik, J. 1996. Irá me neeniier nón Chuuk: Plants and their Environments in Chuuk. Program on Environment, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, 121 pp. .

Merlin, M./Kigfas, A./Keene, T./Juvik, J. 1996. Giddi nge gakiiy nu Wa‘ab: Plants, People and Ecology in Yap State. Program on Environment, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, 121 pp.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1981. The vegetation of Late, Tonga. Allertonia 2(6):323-353.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1980. The vegetation of eastern Samoa. Allertonia 2:45-90.

Whistler, W. A. 1983. Weed Handbook of Western Polynesia. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn. 151 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Unpublished technical report. 76 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1943. The flora of Niue Island. Bishop Mus. Bull. 178. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 126 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1945. Plants of the Manua Islands. Bishop Mus. Bull. 184. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 73 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.