Digitaria violascens Link, Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Digitaria hinensis sensu auct. Micr. non Hornem., pro maxima parte

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: zi ma tang

Chuukese: fatil

English: crab grass, purple crabgrass, smooth crabgrass, violet crabgrass

Palauan: sau

Yapese: cafer

Habit:  grass

Description:  Grass.  "Stems decumbent-ascending, up to 60 cm tall; leaves with the sheaths pilose apically; blades scabrid, 2-6 (-10) cm long, 3-6 mm wide, often reddish; ligule membranous, 1 mm long; spikes 2-9, up to 12 cm long, digitate or subdigitate toward tip of flowering stalk; rachis narrowly winged, 0.5-0.7 mm wide; spikelets less than 2 mm long (usually 1.6-1.8 mm), slender on scabrid pedicels; first glume absent; second glume pubescent, with 2 kinds of hairs (smooth hairs and verrucose hairs), 1-1.2 mm long, 3-nerved; sterile lemma similar but longer, 1.5-1.8 mm long; lanceolate, 5-7-nerved, margin " ciliate; fertile lemma purplish, lanceolate, acute, 1.5-1.7 mm long, dark; caryopsis elliptic-ovate, whitish, 1-1.2 mm long" (Stone, 1970; pp. 211-212).

Description from GrassBase.

Habitat/ecology:  Moist and semi-dry areas to 1700 m elevation or more.  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in mesic shrubland, grassland, and cultivated fields, 90-1,250 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1532).  In Fiji, "common on riverbanks and along the inner edges of mangrove swamps, on hillsides, in cultivation, and along roadsides"  (Smith, 1979; p. 324).  In Papua New Guinea in natural grasslands from sea level to 8,000 feet (Henty, 1969; p. 80).

Propagation:  Seed. A single inflorescence can produce hundreds of seeds.

Native range:  Probably Indo-malaysian originally.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9488 (BISH)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 23) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9125 (BISH), W. Harris 30 (BISH), W. Harris 353 (BISH), W. Harris 317 (BISH)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 35)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 83854) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 22) "Occasionally growing in sown grassland; possibly native in tropical Asia, but now widely naturalised as a weed species throughout the tropics, including Australia and the Pacific islands". Voucher cited: J. Pickard 3466 (NSW)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Sykes, Bill (year unknown) Collected at the entrance to the Takuvaine Valley per Bill Sykes (pers. com.).
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	introduced invasive	Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. (1989) (p. 35) Voucher cited: Manner & Mallon 160 (GUAM)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 127) Voucher cited: Glassman 2395a (US), Glassman 2439 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 56) Vouchers cited: F.R. Fosberg 58511 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2439 (BISH), E.Y. Hosaka 3504 (BISH), L. Stemmermann 66031 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 805a (BISH) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 124235) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 124247) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1979) (voucher ID: BISH 503138) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 589094) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 697534) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. (1969) (p. 3) Voucher cited: Fosberg 46673 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1948) (voucher ID: BISH 124318) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 503374) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 324) Voucher cited: DA 8888
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 324) Vouchers cited: DA 5023, DA 8767, Smith 6632, DA 8843
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 324) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 185, DA 8270, DA 8654, DA 8090, DA 7794, DA 4004, DA 7398, DA 8328, DA 8474
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: B. Toutain 4273 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 335) Voucher cited: Fosberg 61102
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 100)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 335) Vouchers cited: Moore 49, Fosberg & Sachet 63389, BRY 26061
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: P. Morat 6939 (PAP), P. Morat 7019 (PAP), J. Florence 3466 (PAP), J. Florence 3584 (PAP), J. Florence 5196 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 492170) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 607271) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1994) (voucher ID: BISH 639440) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1981) (voucher ID: PTBG 38271) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 335) Voucher cited: Florence 5273
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 10600 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 492303) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 607270) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 644390) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 211-212) Voucher cited: Stone 4840 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 124317) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1532)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1532)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1532)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1532)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1532)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1532)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands		Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Maloelap Atoll		Imada, Clyde (2006)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 70) Voucher cited: Fosberg 58786 (US)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 241) Voucher cited: CHR 168761
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 39-40)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 124319) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 124320) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1970) (voucher ID: BNM 137) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 697535) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Henty, E. E. (1969) (p. 80) Widely-spread in New Guinea, mainly on abandoned garden land and at roadsides, but also in natural grassland, from sea level to 8,000 ft.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	Merrill, Elmer D. (1925) (p. 53) In open grasslands at low and medium altitudes.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51) Voucher cited: Parham 9012
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 100381) Taxon name on voucher: Digitaria violascens Link
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuafo‘ou Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51) Voucher cited: Buelow 2037
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 53)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 332) In wasteland.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 53)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 542) "Grassy roadsides".
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	uncertain if introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 34) Weed of uncertain origin
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 128)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. Arthur (1996) (p. 24)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 128)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Digitaria violascens is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Digitaria violascens as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Digitaria violascens may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1970. Voucher specimen #BNM137(Salsedo, Carl A. 435).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 124247 (Takamatsu, M. 805a).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 124317 (Hosaka, E.Y. 3058).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 124319 (Hosaka, E.Y. 3371).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 697534 (Hosaka, E.Y. 3504).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 697535 (Hosaka, E.Y. 3347).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1948. Voucher specimen #BISH 124318 (Wong, C.C.Y. 529).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 124235 (Glassman, S.F. 2439).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 124320 (Fosberg, F.R. 32326).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 83854 (Whistler, W.A. W301).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 100381 (Whistler, W.A. W 167).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 503374 (Stemmermann, R.L. 3551).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 589094 (Fosberg, F.R. 58511).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1979. Voucher specimen #BISH 503138 (Stemmermann, R.L. 6603).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 492170 (Florence, J. 3694).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 607270 (Fosberg, F.R. 63412).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 607271 (Fosberg, F.R. 63389).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 492303 (Florence, J. 5273).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1990. Voucher specimen #BISH 644390 (Florence 10600).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1994. Voucher specimen #BISH 639440 (Welsh, S. 26061).

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Edgar, E./Connor, H. 2000. Flora of New Zealand, vol. V: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press. .

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. 1969. A collection of plants from Fais, Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 133. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar. 1980. Grass weeds, vol. 1. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 142 pp. + plates.

Henty, E. E. 1969. A manual of the grasses of New Guinea. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 1. Lae, New Guinea. 215 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Imada, Clyde. 2006. Flora of the Marshall Islands: Maloelap Atoll. Species determinations by Clyde Imada, Bishop Museum Herbarium, Hawai‘i. Unpublished checklist, 2 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. 1989. An Annotated list of the vascular plants of Pulawat Atoll. Micronesica 22:23-63.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 1 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 463 pp.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1981. Voucher specimen #PTBG38271(Art Whistler W 4880).

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, Bill. 0. Bill Sykes, pers. com.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 0. Nancy Vander Velde, pers. com.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1993. The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 141 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. Arthur. 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica. 49 pp.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1945. Plants of the Manua Islands. Bishop Mus. Bull. 184. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 73 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).