Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd., Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Reject, score: 11 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Eleusine aegyptiaca (L.) Desf.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: beach wiregrass, coast button grass, comb fringe grass, crowfoot grass, duck grass, Durban crowfoot, Egyptian fingergrass, Egyptian grass, finger comb grass, four-finger grass

Filipino: damong balang, krus-krusan

French: chiendent, pattes de poule, pied poule

I-Kiribati: te uteute

Spanish: estrella del mar, grama egipcia, paja de palma, pata de gallina falsa, tres dedos, yerba de egipto

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Culms compressed and spreading, rooting at the nodes, up to 60 cm tall; blades flat, the edges lined with hairs, rather narrow, as much as a foot long, generally shorter, up to 6.2 mm wide.  Inflorescence of 2-6 broad spikes, up to nearly 6 cm long.  Lower florets with noticeable awns"  (Stone, 1970; p. 191).

"Slender to moderately robust, spreading annuals; culms 70-100 cm tall, usually geniculately ascending and rooting at lower nodes, usually stoloniferous and mat-forming.  Sheaths 2.5-4 cm long, compressed, glabrous or with a few bulbous-based hairs on the keel; ligule a narrow fimbriate membrane; blades flat, 3-25 cm long, 2.5-7.5 (-12) mm wide, papillose-hispid, especially along margins.  Inflorescences composed of (1-) 3-9 linear to narrowly oblong spikes 1.2-6.5 cm long, ascending to radiating horizontally from top of culm; spikelets 3-4-flowered, broadly ovate, 3.5-4.5 mm long; glumes subequal, 1.5-2.2 mm long, first glume lanceolate in profile, keel thick, scabrid, second glume elliptic to narrowly obovate in profile, keel smooth, prolonged into a stout, divergent, scabrid awn 0.5-2 times as long as the glume; lemmas narrowly ovate to ovate in profile, 2.6-4 mm long, keel gibbous, concave and scabrid above the middle and usually prolonged into a stout cusp or mucro up to 1 mm long; palea keels more or less winged.  Caryopsis broadly obovate to triangular, ca. 1 mm long, transversely rugose"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1521-1522).

Description from World Grass Species.

Habitat/ecology:  "A common weed of open ground and waste places in the tropics and subtropics of the world" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; p. 843).  "It is a weed of both arable land and waste places near the sea and, in Malaysia, is found in sandy soils of the lowlands and on sandy beaches at the sea.  It prefers light, dry soils in Java and grows mainly on sandy areas in Sudan.  Despite its preference for a habitat with light soils and low moisture, it has been reported to be an important weed in many countries in the humid tropics"  (Holm et al., 1977; p. 244).

In Hawai‘i, "usually occurring on sand where it has become partially stabilized, on lava, along roadsides, and in other dry, exposed, disturbed areas, 0-90m" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1521-1522).  In Fiji, "it is found from sea level to about 30 m, but is nowhere common" (Smith, 1979; p. 306). In New Caledonia, "largement répandu comme plante rudérale" (MacKee, 1994; p. 58). "Occasional in disturbed places, particularly in dry coastal areas" (Whistler, 1988; p.50).

Propagation:  "Reproduces mainly by seeds but has creeping or spreading stems which root at the lower nodes" (Holm et al., 1977; p. 244).

Native range:  Old World tropics (Stone, 1970; p. 191).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		Flynn, Tim (year unknown)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 50) Voucher cited: Whistler 3686
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 50) Voucher cited: Wisner 26
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 11) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31583 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 11) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31710 (US, BISH, Fo), Falanruw 1953 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 11) Vouchers cited: Anderson 558 (US), Bonham 28 (US, Fo), Fosberg 31351 (US), Moore 413 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Española Group	Española Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Param Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 9) Voucher cited: Lorence 8131A (PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. (2002) (p. 62)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 127) Voucher cited: Glassman 2515 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 306) Voucher cited: DA 8954
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 306) Vouchers cited: DA 13267, DA 7561, DA 2925
French Polynesia Clipperton Island	Clipperton (Arue, Avera) Island		Sachet, M.-H. (1962) (p. 92)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 333) Voucher cited: Grant 4862
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mehetia (Mahetia, Meetia) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 333) Voucher cited: Gagne 1607
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 333) Voucher cited: Cartier 123
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 333) Voucher cited: Moore 769
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 333) Vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 64, Fosberg 62730, BRY 26048
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 191) Voucher cited: Stone 4084 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1521-1522)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1521-1522)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1997) (p. 11) Vouchers cited: Willett 14 (PTBG), Flynn 5924 (PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2007) (p. 29) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & J. Penniman H50622 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1521-1522)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1521-1522)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1521-1522) Voucher cited: Forbes 1074.O (BISH)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Japan (offshore islands) Marcus Island	Marcus Island (Minami Tori Shima)	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 16)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 74)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1988) (p. 10)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	introduced invasive	St. John, Harold (1960) (p. 322) Voucher cited: St. John 26301
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 3) "Uncommon; small patches by airport terminal and areas by airstrip".
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (pp. 81-82) Vouchers cited: Bryan s.n., Fosberg 31188, Fosberg 39496, Hoerbst 9007, Herbst 9034, Whistler 11203
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 3) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31188 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Wotho (Wõtto) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (pp. 81-82)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 3) "Rare; only one small patch observed alongside road in the northern part of Arno; patch is small enough that if extripation was to be undertaken, could likely be eliminated before it becomes a serious pest".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 50)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (pp. 68-69) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58603 (US), Fosberg 58606 (US), Swarbrick 9550 (BRIU), Hassall 209 (SUVA)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 380) Rudérale largement répandue.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 58)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 380) Rudérale largement répandue.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 58) Voucher cited: Vieillard 1491
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 380) Rudérale largement répandue.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 58)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 50) Voucher cited: Sykes 1246
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 103)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 101)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 97)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (pp. 35-36)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 97)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 97)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 106)
Palau Sonsorol Group	Fanna Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 109)
Palau Sonsorol Group	Sonsorol Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 109)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 246)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 50) Voucher cited: Parham 9060
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 55) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15975
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 98) Voucher cited: Soakai 211
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuafo‘ou Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 55) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15992
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Tuvalu Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced invasive	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 52)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Shannon, Robynn K./Herbst, Derral R. (1997) (p. 60) Voucher cited: Flint s.n. (BISH)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1959) (p. 9) Voucher cited: Fosberg 33617
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 4)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 3) Voucher cited: Fosberg 33617 (US)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 50)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 56)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 246)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 56)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 119-120)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 246)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Li-ying, Li/Ren, Wang/Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 172)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 112)
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 38)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Additional information:  Additional online information about Dactyloctenium aegyptium is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Dactyloctenium aegyptium may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Flynn, Tim. 0. Tim Flynn, pers. com.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1959. Vegetation and flora of Wake Island. Atoll Research Bulletin 67. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 20 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1988. Vegetation of Bikini Atoll. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 315:1-28.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar. 1980. Grass weeds, vol. 2. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 137 pp. + plates.

Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. 1977. The world’s worst weeds: distribution and biology. East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii. 609 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. 2002. Invasive/weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. In: Invasive species and their management. Micronesica Suppl. 6:61-65.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lamberson, J. O. 1982. A guide to terrestrial plants of Enewetak Atoll. Pacific Science Information Center, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 73 pp.

Li-ying, Li/Ren, Wang/Waterhouse, D. F. 1997. The distribution and importance of arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture and forestry plantations in southern China. ACIAR, Canberra, Australia. 185 pp.

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