Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Suringar, Cyperaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Mariscus cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: suo zhuang zhuan zi miao

English: long-headed sedge, old world flatsedge

French: cyperacee à grosse tete, cyperacee à tete

Pohnpeian: rehlingkarak

Tahitian: mou upo tutu, mo‘u upo‘o, mue mue

Habit:  sedge

Description:  "Perennials with short, woody rhizomes clothed with brown fibers; culms solitary or few together, erect, 20-70 cm tall, trigonous, smooth, thickened at base.  Leaves several, basal, herbaceous, blades linear, shorter than the culm, 5-7 mm wide, flat, plicate; sheaths pale green, tinged purplish pink.  Inflorescences umbelliform, simple, open or sometimes nearly head-like, the rays 6-10, 0-5 cm long, the spikes green, terminal and solitary on each ray, cylindrical or oblong, narrowed at base, 1.5-3 cm long, 8-12 mm wide, densely bearing numerous spikelets; involucral bracts 4-10, the lower few longer than the inflorescence; spikelets bearing 4-7 glumes and 1-2 (3) fertile flowers, spreading to ascending, linear-lanceolate, subterete, 4-6.5 mm long, ca. 1 mm in diameter, rachilla winged, jointed above the prophyll; glumes green, glaucous, and eventually tinged yellowish brown, membranous to thin and chartaceous, appressed, elliptic to oblong-elliptic, 3-3.5 mm long, 1-1.2 mm wide, inrolled, 3-4-nerved on both sides of midnerve, the keel green, convex, apex obtuse or abruptly acute; style slightly more than 2 mm long.  Achenes linear-oblong, trigonous, ca. 2 mm long, ca. 0.8 mm wide" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1416-1417, 1900).

"Tufted herb, culms to about 50 cm tall, with small basal tubers; leaves sometimes longer than culm, inflorescence of several short, nearly cylindrical spikes (sometimes sessile); bracts elongate; spikes 5-10, each nearly 2-2.5 cm long; spikelets about 4.5 mm long, 2-3-flowered, crowded, directed obliquely upward; achene shorter than glumes; trigonal, reddish-brown"  (Stone, 1970; p. 168).

Habitat/ecology:  "Uncommon to occasional in disturbed places" (Whistler, 1988; p. 43). In Hawai‘i, "occurring in open, grassy sites" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1416-1417). In Fiji, "it occurs near sea level on seashores, roadsides, and hillsides, and in open places, villages and rice fields" (Smith, 1979; p. 256).  In Tonga, "occasional in low, wet areas" (Yuncker, 1959; pp. 68-69).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Indo-malaysia to the Bonin Islands and eastern Australia (Stone, 1970; p. 168). Fosberg et al. (1987; p. 65) lists as native to Micronesia. "A common weed of the Paleotropics, Australia, and many Pacific islands" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1416-1417).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 49)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 49)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 37085) Taxon name on voucher: Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) J. V. Suringar
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Vouchers cited: Garber 649, Yuncker 9132, Whistler 1387, Whistler 3331, Whistler 3599
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1991) (voucher ID: PTBG 22996) Taxon name on voucher: Cyperus cyperinus
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Setchell, William Albert (1924) (p. 110) As Mariscus cyperinus Vahl.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 15) Vouchers cited: Falanruw 2326 (US), Fosberg 31571 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 15) Voucher cited: Falanruw 1900 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Anatahan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Anatahan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 15)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 15) Voucher cited: Falanruw 2300 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Guguan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Guguan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 15) Vouchers cited: Falanruw 1837 (US), Falanruw 1830 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Maug Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Maug Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1977) (p. 28) Voucher cited: Lamoureux 4879 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 15) Vouchers cited: Moore 303 (US), Anderson 532 (US, BISH, Fo, NY, L, P), Anderson 554 (US), Bonham 6 (US, BISH)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 15) Vouchers cited: Falanruw 1796 (US), Evans 2420 (US, BISH, Fo, NY)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	native	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 7) Voucher cited: Lorence 9390 (PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 121) Vouchers cited: Glassman 2396 (US), Glassman 2425 (US), Glassman 2722 (US), Kanehira 768 (NY)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	native	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 41) Vouchers cited: F.R. Fosberg 26406 (BISH), F.R. Fosberg 58419 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2396 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2425 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2722 (BISH), R. Hobdy 1623 (BISH), R. Lengsi 53 (NY) L. Stemmermann 2943 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 841 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 906 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 1006 (BISH)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 256-257) Voucher cited: Milne 281
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 256-257) Voucher cited: DA 8912
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 256-257) Vouchers cited: DA 8754, DA 12030
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 256-257) Vouchers cited: DA 10741, DA 7826, DA 729, DA 1326, DA 7773, DA 429
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yanutha Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 256-257) Voucher cited: DA 9034
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yasawas Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 256-257) Voucher cited: St. John 18171
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	native	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 12161 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 321) Voucher cited: Fosberg 63052
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence & R. Tahuaitu 11692 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 17) Found once, not seen in 1985. Voucher cited: Raynal 17828
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mehetia (Mahetia, Meetia) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 321) Voucher cited: St. John 14207
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 321) Voucher cited: Grant 5403
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 2082 (PAP), J. Florence 2194 (PAP), J. Florence 4806 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 321) Voucher cited: BRY 26463
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 3437 (PAP), J. Florence 10366 (PAP), J. Florence 11871 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 10515 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 321) Vouchers cited: Florence 3337, BRY 26052
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 2840 (PAP), J. Florence 3337 (PAP), J. Florence 4453 (PAP), J. Florence 8802 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1981) (voucher ID: PTBG 38265) Taxon name on voucher: Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) J. V. Suringar
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 5723 (PAP), J. Florence 5785 (PAP), J. Florence 5827 (PAP), J. Florence & W.R. Sykes 11245 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rapa Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 321)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rapa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rimatara (Rimitara) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 321)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 5566 (PAP), J. Florence 5943 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence & W.R. Sykes 11139 (PAP) Adventice
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 168) Vouchers cited: Stone 3827 (GUAM), Stone 4104 (GUAM), MacGregor 418, Nelson 239, Moore 109, Bryan 1233, Rodin 675, Moran 4533
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1416-1417, 1900)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	native	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2006) (p. 34) East Maui. Voucher cited: Starr, Starr & Wysong 040331-1 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1416-1417, 1900)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1416-1417, 1900)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands		Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1979) (voucher ID: BNM 1049) Taxon name on voucher: Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Sur.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 65)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngerchong Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 160) Taxon name on voucher: Cyperus cyperinus
Papua New Guinea Bougainville Islands	Bougainville Island		Foreman, D. B. (1971) (p. 24)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 30) In similar situations to Cyperus cyperoides.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Merrill, Elmer D. (1925) (p. 112) At low and medium altitudes, in open waste places, old clearings, etc.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 114)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 43)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 89)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Tofua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 86) Voucher cited: Scarth-Johnson 101
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 68-69) "Occasional throughout Tonga".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 86) Vouchers cited: Parks 16147, Parks 16375
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 86) Voucher cited: Setchell & Parks 15524
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 68-69) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15229
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 86) Vouchers cited: Crosby 175, Soakai 1062 (ID?)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 68-69) Voucher cited: Yuncker 16033
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 58)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	native	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 43)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 318) As Mariscus cyperinus Vahl. On moist grassland of valleys and hillslopes.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Japan Ryukyu Islands	Ryukyu Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	uncertain if introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 31) Weed of uncertain origin
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 114)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Cyperus cyperinus is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Cyperus cyperinus as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Cyperus cyperinus may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1979. Voucher specimen #BNM1049(Canfield, J.E. 669).

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Foreman, D. B. 1971. A check list of the vascular plants of Bougainville, with descriptions of some common forest trees. Botany Bulletin No. 5. Division of Botany, Department of Forests. Lae, New Guinea. 194 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1977. Additional records of vascular plants from the northern Mariana Islands. Micronesica 13: 27-31.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 1 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 463 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. 1985. Contribution à la connaissance de la végétation et de la flore de Wallis & Futuna. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris, 4e sér., 7, section B. Adansonia 3 : 259-329.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1981. Voucher specimen #PTBG38265(Art Whistler W 4793).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2001. Voucher specimen #PTBG37085(Diane Ragone 2001-04).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2008. Voucher specimen #PTBG160(David H. Lorence 9870).

Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. 2003. Botanical and ethnobotanical inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii and Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.

Setchell, William Albert. 1924. American Samoa; part I. Vegetation of Tutuila Island. part II. Ethnobotany of the Samoans. part III. Vegetation of Rose Atoll. The Carnegie Institution of Washington. 275 pp. + illus.

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