Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume, Amaranthaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: bei xian

English: cyathula, pastureweed

Japanese: inokodutimodoki

Maori (Cook Islands): mata kura, mata kura

Marquesan: akatou, ea mata, fefeimata

Pohnpeian: osen likendinikep, oson likan tinkap, oson-likantikap

Samoan: la‘au maneso, la‘au tālātālā, lau talatala, manutoga

Tahitian: akii, mamau, mata ura, oroura, toroua, toroura

Tongan: toloma‘unga

Habit:  herb

Description: 

Genus:" Perennial herbs or undershrubs; leaves opposite, the blades entire; flowers clustered, the clusters (in our species) on rachis of a long raceme on short, jointed stalks, deflexed after anthesis, the perfect flowers in each cluster 1-3, accompanied by 1 or more imperfect, sterile flowers reduced to fascicled hooks, the distal flowers solitary, without hooks; tepals of perfect flowers 5, oblong, short-acuminate, with scariose margins, longitudinally nerved; stamens 5, the filaments proximally connate into a short cup, the free parts alternating with shorter, dentate or lacerate pseudostaminodes, the anthers 2-celled (4-loculed); ovary obovoid, the ovule 1, pendulous from a long funicle, the style filiform, the stigma capitate; utricle ellipsoid, thin-walled, indehiscent, 1-seeded" (Smith, 1981; pp. 289-290).

Species:  A herb 0.3-1 m high, subligneous toward base and with a long taproot (Smith, 1981; pp. 289-290). "Annuals, the herbace puberulent with curved hairs; stems creeping-ascending, 3-10 dm long, becoming much-branched; petioles 3-15 mm long; leaves opposite, the blades 1-6 cm long, 6-35 mm wide, ovate to somewhat rhombic or elliptic to lanceolate, attenuate, cuneate to acute or obtuse at the base; flowers borne in lax, spicate clusters, 2-12 cm long, on peduncles 1-4 cm long; each cluster 3-flowered, with one fertile and the others sterile, sepals 2.2-3 mm long, oblong-elliptic; seed ovoid, ca 1.5 mm broad, shining, brown, smooth"  (Welsh, 1998; pp. 27-28).

Habitat/ecology:  "Uncommon in disturbed places, including secondary forest" (Whistler, 1988; p. 7).

In Fiji, "at elevations from near sea level to about 1,200 m, as a naturalized weed on seashores and along roadsides and forest trails" (Smith, 1981; pp. 289-290).  In Tahiti, "cool valleys to 800 m" (Welsh, 1998; pp. 27-28). In Papua New Guinea, "a weed of roadsides, plantations and rough grazing land, in partial shade" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 57); "in primary and secondary forests, also as a weed in moist shady places, at 0-1200 (-2000) m altitude"  (Womersley, 1978; p. 32). In Tonga, "a plantation and waste area weed" (Yuncker, 1959; p. 108).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  "Africa to China and Australia, probably introduced into tropical America" (Smith, 1981; pp. 289-290).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Garber 592,  Garber 669, Harris 215, Yuncker 9170
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 37) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9170 (BISH), Garber 669 (BISH), W. Harris 215 (BISH)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1991) (voucher ID: PTBG 10238) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 90)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Anon. (1988) (p. 1)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Setchell, William Albert (1924) (p. 96)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 70)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 12) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2005) (p. 16) Common
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1988) (voucher ID: PTBG 24267) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1996) (voucher ID: PTBG 24886) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata (L.) Bl.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 70)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 57) Voucher cited: Glassman 2454 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (pp. 66-67) Vouchers cited: M.J. Balick 3959 (NY), M.J. Balick 3993 (NY, PTBG), M.J. Balick 4123 (NY, PTBG), A. Dores 81 (NY, PTBG), E. Eperiam 29 (NY), F.R. Fosberg 26405 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2454 (BISH), R. Hobdy 1636 (BISH), M. Hung 5 (NY, PTBG), D.H. Lorence 9567 (COM, NY, PTBG, US), P. Raynor 29 (NY), C. Trauernicht 93 (NY, PTBG), M. Takamatsu 696 (BISH) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (year unknown) (voucher ID: PTBG 34958) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2000) (voucher ID: PTBG 43410) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2004) (voucher ID: PTBG 43426) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2005) (voucher ID: PTBG 46093) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 48696) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2007) (voucher ID: PTBG 49907) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 70)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Moala Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 289-290) Voucher cited: Milne 114
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 289-290) Voucher cited: MacGillivray
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 289-290) Voucher cited: DA 8849
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 289-290) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 347, DA 2105, DA 7108, DA 13063, DA 11643, DA 7754, DA 9418, Milne 415
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 7347 (PAP), J. Florence 7425 (PAP), J. Florence, D.H. Lorence & W.L. Wagner 9519 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1995) (voucher ID: PTBG 23564) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata (L.) Bl.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence, D.H. Lorence, S.P. Perlman & W.L. Wagner 9599 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 4309 (PAP), J. Florence 6681 (PAP), J. Florence 6731 (PAP), J. Florence 7438 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 7272 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2004) (voucher ID: PTBG 42534) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2004) (voucher ID: PTBG 42248) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata (L.) Bl.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 27-28) Voucher cited: Grant 3440
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 27-28) Voucher cited: Fosberg 12130
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence & R. Tahuaitu 11558 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mehetia (Mahetia, Meetia) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mehetia (Mahetia, Meetia) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 10276 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 4772 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 27-28) Voucher cited: Moore 157
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 3613 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 27-28) Vouchers cited: Florence et al. 9857, Grant 3550, Drake l.c.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Vesco s.n. (PAP), J. Lépine 67 (PAP), M. Chaine 121 (PAP), J. Florence 3972 (PAP), J. Florence 8758 (PAP), J. Florence , P. Birnbaum & M. Chaine 9789 (PAP), J. Florence , P. Birnbaum & M. Chaine 9857 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1981) (voucher ID: PTBG 37226) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rimatara (Rimitara) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 9169 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 68-71)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) New Guinea Island	New Guinea Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 57) From low altitudes to 1000 m.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Womersley, John S., ed. (1978) (p. 32)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 110)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 129) At low and medium altitudes, in waste places, thickets, etc.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1989) (voucher ID: PTBG 3919) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1991) (voucher ID: PTBG 13054) Taxon name on voucher: Cyathula prostrata
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 7)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 90)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 108) "Throughout the group".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 108) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15562
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuatoputapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 108) Voucher cited: Hürlimann 335
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Tafahi Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 108) Voucher cited: Hürlimann 451
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 2) Vouchers cited: Barclay s.n., Crosby 238
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 108) Cited: Barclay, Crosby.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 51)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (pp. 78-79)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	native	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 30) Common
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Frégate Island		Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. (1983) (p. 44) Voucher cited: Robertson 2689

Additional information:
Additional online information about Cyathula prostrata is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Cyathula prostrata as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Cyathula prostrata may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Anon. 1988. Weed list for American Samoa by cropping system. Checklist dated 07/13/88, origin unknown. 3 pp.

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Florence, J. 2004. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 2. Paris. IRE Editions, Publications Scientifiques, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 41. 503 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2005. Botanical survey of the Yela River valley, Kosrae, F.S.M. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii. 19 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 2 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 530 pp.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 0. Voucher specimen #PTBG34958(M. J. Balick 3993).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1981. Voucher specimen #PTBG37226(Art Whistler W 4826).

Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. 1983. Vegetation of Frégate Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Setchell, William Albert. 1924. American Samoa; part I. Vegetation of Tutuila Island. part II. Ethnobotany of the Samoans. part III. Vegetation of Rose Atoll. The Carnegie Institution of Washington. 275 pp. + illus.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. The weeds of Manu‘a [unpublished checklist]. 18 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Womersley, John S., ed. 1978. Handbooks of the flora of Papua New Guinea, vol. 1. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. 278 pp.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1945. Plants of the Manua Islands. Bishop Mus. Bull. 184. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 73 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).