Cuscuta campestris Yunck., Convolvulaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Reject, score: 22 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: yuan ye tu si zi

English: angel's hair, common dodder, dodder, field dodder, five angled dodder, golden dodder, strangle vine, western field dodder

Fijian: navereverelangi, ndithangi, wa lawala, wa mbosuthu, wa ndanga, wa tikaivu, wa vereverelangi

French: cuscute de champs, fil de soie

Maori (Cook Islands): tia‘ea

Rotuman: luorovaka

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Stems threadlike, with occasional concave scales at ramifications, haustoria irregularly distributed; inflorescences somewhat thickened, forked, cymules irregularly helicoid or subscorpioid, with obovate hyaline bracts up to 2 x 1 mm, obtuse, flattish; flowers pedicellate, about 3 mm wide, closely subtended by a tiny obtuse scale; calyx broadly cup shaped, lobed to 1/3-1/2 its length, lobes semicircular, slightly overlapping at sinuses; corolla tube broad, included, lobes about equaling tube, exserted, ovate, obtuseish but mucronulate, tending to be reflexed, about 1 mm long; scales with several blunt linear processes on each side of filament; stamens exserted, filaments inserted in sinuses, anthers broadly elliptic, curved, about 0.6 mm long, filaments about as long; ovary with apex capitate; fruit depressed globose, about 2.5 mm across, with a large hole in top between persistent styles; walls hyaline translucent; seeds about 1 mm across, subglobose with concavities from crowding, dark dull brown with black spot (hilum?), surface dull, cellular-reticulate" (Fosberg and Sachet, 1977; pp. 5-6).

Habitat/ecology:  Parasitic on a wide range of host plants. Climbs over vegetation. In New Caledonia, "paraît de façon sporadique à Dumbéa ex aux environs de Nouméa; rarement vu ailleurs" (MacKee, 1994; p. 40).

Propagation:  A prolific seed producer. Seeds spread by animals, by water, or as a contaminant of agricultural seeds. Seeds may remain dormant for long periods. Can also spread by stem fragments. A common contaminant of seed.

In Fiji, "often locally abundant from near sea level to an elevation up to 1,050 m, naturalized in thickets, cultivated areas, plantations, and clearings and along roadsides"  (Smith, 1991; p. 70).  In Hawai'i, "apparently sparingly naturalized"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 582).

Native range:  North America.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 17) Voucher cited: Whistler 5376
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 85) Voucher: Flynn 7025 (PTBG, BISH, US)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 358) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 79) Voucher cited: D.H. Lorence 8055 (MO, NY, PRBG, US) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1997) (voucher ID: PTBG 30130) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta cf. Campestris Yuncker
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 222)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2008) (p. 11)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 70) Voucher cited: Smith 9
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 140616) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1938) (voucher ID: BISH 612918) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 70) Voucher cited: Gillespie 4664.8
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1928) (voucher ID: BISH 140619) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 70) Vouchers cited: DA 10464, DA 10783
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1957) (voucher ID: BISH 33897) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 70) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 390, Smith 4003, Gibbs 814, Degener 14934, DA 11345, Vaughan 3201, O.&I. Degener 32120a, DA 8997, DA 11179, Gillespie 3419, Setchell & Parks 15023, Smith 7228, Yeoward 84, Yuncker 18004
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 33896) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 34389) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1937) (voucher ID: BISH 140617) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1937) (voucher ID: BISH 140618) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1937) (voucher ID: BISH 140620) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 140621) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 140622) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 140623) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 140624) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 140625) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 140626) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 140627) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yasawas Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 70) Voucher cited: St. John 18059
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yasawas Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1937) (voucher ID: BISH 140628) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 96) Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.; Vouchers cited: Florence 2794, Setchell & Parks 12, Grant 3656
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1912) (voucher ID: BISH 140614) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491619) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C. (1980) (p. 209) Voucher cited: Falanruw 3331 (US)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 649470) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 651731) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 651732) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 652426) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 1000164) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1980) (voucher ID: PTBG 23977) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta cf. campestris
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 582) Voucher cited: Welch 16704 (BISH) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2011) (p. 7) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & Perlman H120821 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 10) West Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H50115 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2004) (p. 22) East Maui. Voucher cited: Starr & Starr 020814-1 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 582) Sparingly naturalized.
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 29) Listed as native by Wester.
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 51387) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.
Kiribati Line Islands	Teraina (Washington) Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (pp. 89-90)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 90)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 40) Vouchers cited: Le Rat 220, Franc 737, Compton 170 (BM), Däniker 84 (Z), MacKee 19109, MacKee 22774, MacKee 24994, MacKee 28352, MacKee 37254, MacKee 46225
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 80) Voucher cited: CHR 169815
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 17)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 7) Voucher: Flynn 6708 (PTBG, US, NIUE)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 14)
Niue Niue	Niue Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (year unknown) (voucher ID: PTBG 30179) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 17) Voucher cited: Brown s.n.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 593160) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1989) (voucher ID: PTBG 3926) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1998) (voucher ID: BISH 690629) Taxon name on voucher: Cuscuta campestris Yunck.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	New South Wales		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
Canada Province of British Columbia	Canada (British Columbia)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Chile (continental) Chile	Chile (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Fujian (Fuzhou Shi), Xinjiang.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
South Korea South Korea	South Korea (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 254)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 554) "A parasite of carrot and sugar beet crops, also of wild hosts".
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (Oregon)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)

Comments:  Becoming quite common on Guam.

On U.S. Federal noxious weed list.

Control:  Control is difficult because control of the dodder usually results in the destruction of the host plant.

Physical: Mow and burn the cut material where it lies or spray with oil or other weed killer and burn (Kleinschmidt and Johnson, 1977; p. 49).

Biological: "Several insects restrict dodder growth, the most promising being a small weevil, Smicronyx sp., which feeds on growing points and forms galls on the young dodder shoots.  C. campestris is attacked by the fungal pathogens, Alternaria cuscutacidae, in the southern Soviet Union and Colletotrichum destructivum in Oregon in the United States and a form of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides in China"  (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992; pp. 400-403).

Additional information:
Draft European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization datasheet.

Additional online information about Cuscuta campestris is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Cuscuta campestris as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Cuscuta campestris may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1912. Voucher specimen #BISH 140614 (King, S. 418).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 140622 (Gillespie, J.W. 3419).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 140626 (Parks, H.E. 20624).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1928. Voucher specimen #BISH 140619 (Gillespie, J.W. 4664.8).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1933. Voucher specimen #BISH 140616 (Smith, A.C. 9).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1937. Voucher specimen #BISH 140617 (St.John, H. 18004).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1937. Voucher specimen #BISH 140618 (Meebold, A. 21929).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1937. Voucher specimen #BISH 140620 (Meebold, A. 21929).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1937. Voucher specimen #BISH 140628 (St.John, H. 18059).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1938. Voucher specimen #BISH 612918 (St.John, H. 19463).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1941. Voucher specimen #BISH 140625 (Degener, O. 14934).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 140624 (Smith, A.C. 6251).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 140627 (Smith, A.C. 4003).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 140621 (Smith, A.C. 7228).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 140623 (Smith, A.C. 8759).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1957. Voucher specimen #BISH 33897 (Koroiveibau, D. 10783).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 33896 (Parham, J.W. 11345).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 51387 (Long, C.R. 3419).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 34389 (Degener, O. 32120A).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 651731 (Fosberg, F.R. 59656).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 651732 (Fosberg, F.R. 59758).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 652426 (Fosberg, F.R. 59632).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491619 (Florence, J. 2794).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 649470 (Herbst, D.R. 7145).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000164 (Herbst, D.R. 7145).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 593160 (Brown, S.; collector's voucher number unknown).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1998. Voucher specimen #BISH 690629 (D.R.Herbst 9850).

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C. 1980. Noteworthy Micronesian plants 4. Micronesica 16(2):201-210.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1977. Flora of Micronesia. Part 3. Convolvulaceae. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 36: 1-34.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Heine, Heino. 1984. 13. Convolvulacées. In: Morat, Ph.. et H. S. MacKee. Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et Dépendances. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James. 1997. World weeds: natural histories and distribution. John Wiley & Sons. 1129 pp.

Kleinschmidt, H. E./Johnson, R. W. 1977. Weeds of Queensland. Govt. Printer. 469 p.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2008. Checklist of the plants of Yap. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 20 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 0. Voucher specimen #PTBG30179(Tim Flynn 6708).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG358(Tim Flynn 7025).

Oppenheimer, Hank. 2011. New Hawaiian plant records for 2009. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2009-2010. Part II: Plants. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 110:5-10.

Oppenheimer, Hank L. 2003. New plant records from Maui and Hawai‘i Counties. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2001-2002. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 73:3-30.

Parsons, W. T./Cuthbertson, E. G. 1992. Noxious weeds of Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne/Sydney. 692 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 5. 626 pp.

Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. 2004. New plant records from the Hawaiian Archipelago. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2003. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 79:20-30.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. 2011. The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand, Volume IV: Naturalised pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch. 1365 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wester, Lyndon. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reseach Bulletin 287:1-38.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).