Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don, Melastomataceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 27 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

English: clidemia, Koster's curse, soap bush

Fijian: bona na bulamakau, kaurasinga, kauresinga, mara na bulumakau, mbona na mbulamakau, ndraunisinga, roinisinga, vuti

French: bombon bleu, canot-macaque, rou'i, tabac-boeuf

Palauan: kúi, kui

Samoan: a‘au lau mamoe

Spanish: camasey

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Shrubs 0.5-3 m tall; young branches rounded, hirsute.  Leaves ovate to oblong-ovate, 5-16 cm long, 3-8 cm wide, 5-nerved, upper surface sparsely strigose, lower surface finely bristly, margins ciliate, subentire to crenulate-denticulate, apex acute to short-acuminate, base rounded to subcordate, petioles 0.5-3 cm long.  Pedicels 0.5-1 mm long in fruit; hypanthium 3-3.5 mm long, moderately to sparsely finely bristly, usually with a mixture of gland-tipped and stellulate hairs; receptacle bearing a conspicuous ring of fimbriate scales surrounding style; calyx lobes broadly ovate to truncate in fruit, ca. 0.5 mm long, the linear external teeth projecting 2-4 mm; petals 8-11 mm long, 4-5 mm wide, glabrous; staminal filaments ca. 2.5 mm long; anthers 3.5-4.5 mm long, dorsal spur at base ca. 0.25 mm long.  Berries 6-9 mm long.  Seeds 0.5-0.75 mm long"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 906).

Habitat/ecology:  "This noxious weedy shrub grows up to 2 m tall in pastures and forest. It is an aggressive invader which shades out all vegetation below it (Wester and Wood 1977). The seeds are principally dispersed by alien frugivorous birds, but any organism moving through the thickets will carry seeds away with it. It is probably not resistant to fire, an unlikely event in its habitat, but it rapidly colonizes burned areas.

"Clidemia hirta, the natural range of which extends throughout the humid tropics of Central and South America from southern Mexico to northern Argentina and the islands of the West Indies, is a densely branching melastomataceous shrub, growing up to four m in height and covered with dense hairs. Plants flower and fruit prolifically throughout the year, producing sweet, pulpy, dark-blue berries filled with minute seeds. On a good soil, this weed can produce an impenetrable stand. It thrives both in open grassland and in deep shade, and can result in greatly increased weeding costs in commercial plantations. A pioneering species after disturbance, in forests it tends to displace native plants."  (Courtesy Hawaii Department of Agriculture)

In its native range, tropical dry and tropical moist, usually characterized by very high humidity for most of the year with a dry period of about two to three months.  In Hawaii, widespread in areas that receive more than 12709 mm of rain annually; from almost sea level to 900 m.  It can also be found in areas of annual rainfall in excess of 76oo mm , with no dry season.  It is found in light conditions ranging from full sunlight to 100% canopy cover, demonstrating broad tolerance (Cronk & Fuller, 2001; pp. 74-75).

This plant is a serious pest in mesic and wet environments on O‘ahu and more recently in Wailau, Moloka‘i, as well as Nahiku and Kailua areas, Maui. It has also become established on Kaua‘i, West Maui, and Waiakea, Hawai‘i (C.W. Smith, 1985; p. 189).  In Fiji, "this weedy shrub may be found from near sea level to 1,323 m (the highest elevation), abundantly naturalized in open or dry forest, on the edges of forest, and in secondary forest"  (A. C. Smith, 1985; p. 386). In New Guinea, "a serious weed of cultivation and pastures, also found in forest" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 125).

Propagation:  Berries are avidly eaten by birds, which serve to spread the plant over wide areas.

Native range:  Tropical America (Mexico and the West Indies southward to central Brazil).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 4)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (pp. 4, 13)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 4)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 30) Voucher cited: Wisner 5
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 4)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 83861) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 147670) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 159069) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1923) (voucher ID: BISH 420467) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Voucher cited: Smith 119
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 159045) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 837
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mango Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Voucher cited: DA 5832
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Voucher cited: Gillespie 4786.4
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1928) (voucher ID: BISH 159052) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Vouchers cited: Smith 1703, Greenwood 211A, Bierhorst F38
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1934) (voucher ID: BISH 159051) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 1097
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 1210, Degener 14266, DA 7088, DA 12675 (Melville et al., 7051), DA 9178 (McKee 2742), DA 10953, Gillespie 2015, DA 11026, Bryan 187
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1957) (voucher ID: BISH 14982) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1955) (voucher ID: BISH 159044) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 159046) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 159047) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 159048) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 159049) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1932) (voucher ID: BISH 159050) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 159053) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 159054) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 448470) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yasawas Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 386-387) Voucher cited: St. John 18023
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yasawas Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1937) (voucher ID: BISH 159043) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 906)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 906)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2007) (p. 27) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & K.R. Wood H80626 (BISH, PTBG). "All plants encountered were removed, and the large and dense thickets typical of Clidemia infestations have not yet been observed on Lāna‘i".
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 906)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 906)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 906) Voucher cited: Degener & Murashige 21707 (BISH)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 194)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (pp. 3, 8)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 9, 84)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 29) Voucher cited: Lorence 8220 (PTBG)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 653936) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1997) (voucher ID: BISH 697865) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 9, 80)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 432368) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Papua New Guinea Bougainville Islands	Bougainville Island	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 53-54)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 125)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 6)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 30) Voucher cited: Whistler 3912
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 6)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 427920) Taxon name on voucher: Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 90)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 58)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 90)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. (2001) (p. 149)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Alofi Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna (Horne) Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 30)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107) Dense forest.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M (2003) (p. 482) Subject of an eradication program.
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 53-54)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 53-54)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Negara Brunei Darussalam Brunei	Brunei (Negara Brunei Darussalam)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 53-54)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 53-54)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Comoros Comoro Islands	Comoro Islands	introduced invasive	Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. (2001) (p. 149)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. (1991) (pp. 51-61)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Très envahissant"
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 91)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced invasive	Weber, Ewald (2003) (p. 113)

Comments:  Already widespread in Samoa (Space & Flynn, 2002) and becoming a problem species in American Samoa (scattered patches on Tutuila and Olosega; extensive areas on the western end of Ofu) (Space & Flynn, 2000).

On the State of Hawai‘i noxious weed list.

A declared noxious weed and problem species in Fiji.

Reported to be present in Niue and Tonga (Waterhouse, 1997) but not seen there (Space et al., 2004; Space & Flynn, 2001).

Control:  The Nature Conservancy’s Stewardship Abstract gives information on control.

Chemical: "At the Lyon Arboretum, we ran some tests on cut & paint techniques using water-based triclopyr. The form we used was Brush-be-Gone concentrate, with blue dye marker added. We had 96-100% success in suppressing coppicing (n = 25), compared with 0-4% success with no treatment or Roundup concentrate (Painting with Roundup did suppress coppicing for a while, but the stumps painted with Roundup eventually did resprout.) For triclopyr to be effective, it needs to be applied immediately after cutting. When we tried cutting off the tops, leaving long stumps, then coming back 30-45 minutes later, cutting the stumps short, then painting them, we had much poorer success. Brush-be-Gone is a slightly diluted form of Garlon 3A, so if you need details on its properties, you can find them in the triclopyr chapter of the Nature Conservancy's weed control manual, available on-line at http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/.

"The cut & paint technique is labor-intensive. It is useful when the Clidemia grows mixed with plants which need to be preserved. If the density of Clidemia is high, you may consider doing the cutting and painting in two waves a couple of weeks apart, so as to reduce the possibility that harmful amounts of triclopyr bleed from the roots of the treated Clidemia to their neighbors. If the treatment effects on neighboring plants is of no concern, it is much easier to spray. I think that the Arboretum uses Roundup" (Alvin Y. Yoshinaga, Center for Conservation Research and Training, Honolulu, HI USA (communication to ALLISCS list server).

"Triclopyr amine at 1 to 2 % in water in foliar application was effective at Kipahulu, Maui (Haleakala National Park). A 50% triclopyr amine application to cut stump was effective at one month in a trial at Ha‘ena, Kaua‘i (Limahuli Gardens). Thinline basal bark application of triclopyr ester was effective at one month to plants 7 to 9 ft tall at Kipahulu Valley, Maui (Haleakala National Park). Triclopyr ester at 2 lb./acre effective, especially with 0.5% crop oil.  Drizzle applications of glyphosate and of triclopyr were ineffective (University of Hawaii), but Pat Thile, DOFAW, reported good results with drizzle applications of triclopyr in oil on recovering clidemia that had been previously cut back" (Motooka et al., 2003).

Biological: Several expeditions for potential biological control agents have been made in Trinidad, and a number of insects are being currently screened. A thrips, Liothrips urichi, works well in open areas, but not in the shade of forests (Whistler, 1983). Testing of additional agents is under way in Hawai‘i. See also Waterhouse and Norris,1987, and Julien, 1992.

"The Hawaii Department of Agriculture (HDOA), the Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) of the Hawaii Department of Natural Resources, and University of Hawaii are monitoring the fungus Colletotrichum gloesporioides. HDOA and DLNR are testing Lius poseidon, a beetle; and moths Antiblemma acclinalis, Carposina bullata and Mompha trithalama"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Photo and Stewardship Abstract from The Nature Conservancy.
Additional information at the Woody Plant Ecology web site.

Additional online information about Clidemia hirta is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Clidemia hirta may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1923. Voucher specimen #BISH 420467 (Wilder, G.P. 20).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1924. Voucher specimen #BISH 159048 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 187).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 159046 (Gillespie, J.W. 2015).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 159047 (Parks, H.E. 20886).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 159054 (MacDaniels, L.H. 1063).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1928. Voucher specimen #BISH 159052 (Gillespie, J.W. 4786.4).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1932. Voucher specimen #BISH 159050 (Meebold, A. 16525).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1933. Voucher specimen #BISH 159045 (Smith, A.C. 119).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1933. Voucher specimen #BISH 159049 (Wilder, G.P. 1233).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1934. Voucher specimen #BISH 159051 (Smith, A.C. 1703).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1937. Voucher specimen #BISH 159043 (St.John, H. 18023).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1941. Voucher specimen #BISH 159053 (Degener, O. 14266).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1955. Voucher specimen #BISH 159044 (McKee, H.S. 2742).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1957. Voucher specimen #BISH 14982 (Ledua, M.K. 11026).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 159069 (Wisner, A.W. 5).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 147670 (Long, C.R. 2604).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 653936 (Fosberg, F.R. 50581).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 83861 (Whistler, W.A. W 311).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 448470 (Weiner, M.A. MW-72-F-148).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 427920 (Whistler, W.A. W 3912).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 432368 (Stemmermann, R.L. 3324).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1997. Voucher specimen #BISH 697865 (Herbst, D.R. 9830).

Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. 2001. Plant invaders. Earthscan Publications, Ltd., London. 241 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Haselwood, E. L./Motter, G. G. 1983. Handbook of Hawaiian Weeds. Second edition, revised and expanded by Robert T. Hirano. University of Hawaii Press. 491 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Julien, M. H. (ed.). 1992. Biological control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds (third edition). CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 186 pp.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Palau. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 40 pp.

MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. 1991. Effects of alien plant invasions on native vegetation remnants on La Reunion (Mascarenes Islands, Indian Ocean). Environmental Conservation 18 (1):51-61.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Mune, T. L./Parham, J. W. 1967. The declared noxious weeds of Fiji and their control. Third edition. Department of Agriculture, Fiji. Bulletin No. 48. 87 pp.

Oppenheimer, Hank. 2007. New plant records from Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, and Hawai‘i for 2006. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2006. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 96:17-34.

Orapa, Warea. 2005. Warea Orapa, Weed Mangement Officer, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, pers. com. (Trip Report, Wallis and Futuna Islands, 8 to 22 May, 2004).

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

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