Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb., Lamiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 18 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Clerodendrum fragrans (Hort. ex Vent.) Willd.; Clerodendrum philippinum Schauer

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: chong ban xiu mo li

English: Chinese glory bower, fragrant clerodendrum, fragrant glory bower, glory bower, Hawaiian Rose, Honolulu rose, stickbush

Hawaiian: pīkake hohono, pīkake pilau, pīkake wauke

Maori (Cook Islands): pitate mama, tiare tūpāpaku

Pohnpeian: rohsen onoluhlu

Samoan: losa fiti, losa fiti, losa Honolulu, losa Honolulu

Tagalog: pelegrina

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Scented subshrubs up to 2 m tall; branches quadrangular, densely strigose.  Leaves membranous, broadly ovate, 6-29 cm long, 5-28 cm wide, both surfaces sparsely to moderately strigillose, margins coarsely and irregularly dentate, sometimes weakly 1-3-lobed, apex acute, base cordate to truncate, petioles 2-23 cm long.  Flowers fragrant, numerous in dense, terminal cymose inflorescences, often subtended by a pair of foliaceous bracts, bracteoles numerous, oblong or elliptic, 1.5-3 cm long, strigillose, especially along the margins; calyx purple or red, sometimes with white spots, campanulate, 10-15 mm long, 5-lobed, the lobes anceolate, apex acuminate; corolla pale pink, salverform, usually doubled by petaloid stamens; stamens and ovary usually modified into extra petals  Fruit unknown"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1319). "A perennial shrub, 1.2 -2.4 m tall, with attractive, dense terminal heads of white-pink-mauve flowers.  The flowers are fragrant and often sterile.  The leaves are large (6-10 cm long), opposite and simple with variable margins." (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 33)

Habitat/ecology:  "A major weed of roadsides and gardens in towns and villages and rapidly invades pastures and plantations wherever it is planted.  It only thrives where the soil and air are moist and fertile, but it can tolerate shade"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 15).  Can form dense thickets that exclude other species. "The plant appears best suited to high rainfall (greater than 1000 mm per annum), tropical and sub-tropical climates" (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 33).  "Forms dense canopies in pastures, along streams, and along forest edges, shading out the understory"  (Motooka et al., 2003).  "The plant thrives best where the soil is fertile and moist and where there is plenty of sunlight.  However, it can tolerate shade.  In particular, the rich, moist soils of geologically-recent volcanic islands favor it"  (Waterhouse, 1993; p. 79).

In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in open, wet, partly shaded, disturbed areas at the edges of mesic and wet forests, taro paddies, or streams, 50-670 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1319). In Fiji, "sparingly cultivated from near sea level to an elevation of about 900 m; it is more commonly seen naturalized in thickets, fields, and coconut plantations and along roadsides"  (Smith, 1991; pp. 212-213).

Propagation:  Primarily root suckers (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 33).

Native range:  Southern China and northern Viet Nam.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 4)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 4)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Whistler 3068
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1975) (voucher ID: BISH 130097) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum philippinum
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (pp. 4, 13)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 49)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1990) (voucher ID: PTBG 9134) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb.
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 4)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1961) (voucher ID: BISH 186985) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum philippinum
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 76)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 89) "Potential invader"
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 10)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 186952) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum fragrans var. pleniflora
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. 26)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 18) Invasive species.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 100) Invasive
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 77)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 76)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 212-213) Voucher cited: DA 10763
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1957) (voucher ID: BISH 33646) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 212-213) Vouchers cited: Smith 5017, DA 10126, DA 7428, DA 11071
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 187042) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 77)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 151)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 5008 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 292) Vouchers cited: BRY 25366, BRY 26410
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 77)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: F.R. Fosberg & M.-H. Sachet 63396 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 492150) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum fragrans var. pleniflora
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 151)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 292) Voucher cited: Setchell & Parks 13
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 77)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 77)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: S. Jourdan 592 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491741) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum fragrans var. pleniflora
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643926) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum fragrans var. pleniflora
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1319, 1895)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1319, 1895)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1319, 1895)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1319, 1895)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1319, 1895)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1319, 1895)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (pp. 212-213) Voucher cited: CHR 169882
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 39)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 49)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 8) Some control work has been undertaken.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 77)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 60)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 6)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28904) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum philippinum
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 417676) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum philippinum
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 439419) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum philippinum
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 439420) Taxon name on voucher: Clerodendrum philippinum
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 106) "Potential invader".

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 73)
Chile (continental) Chile	Chile (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 229) Ornamental.
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75) Var. simplex only.
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 27) Cultivated only
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 76)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 76)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced cultivated	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (p. 75)

Comments:  A major weed in Samoa (Upolu) (Space & Flynn, 2002) and American Samoa (Space & Flynn, 2000). Meyer (2000; p. 106) lists as present in Tonga, but not seen on islands visited (Space & Flynn, 2001). Becoming widespread on Niue (Space & Flynn, 2000; Space et al., 2004).

Control: 

Physical: "Slashing will slow spread but not prevent it.  Vertical barriers in the soil may prevent further spread if deep enough.  Deep cultivation in dry soil should be effective, but cultivation in moist soil is probably ineffective and may spread the weed.  Apparently unpalatable to stock" (Swarbrick, 1997; pp. 23-24).

Chemical:  "Probably susceptible to:  1) foliar application of arboricides such as picloram, metsulfuorn-methyl, glyphosate and triclopyr at standard rates and dilutions; 2) cut-stump application of the same herbicides; 3) soil application of hexazinone, karbutilate, fluroxypyr and bromacil at standard rates" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 24). "A little work done suggests hormone-type herbicides in timely repeat applications will control this weed" (Motooka et al., 2003).

"No detailed screening of herbicides has been carried out, although 2,4,5-T, or the more expensive Tordon 520 Brushkiller, are suggested as possible herbicides for Western Samoa.  More recently a mixture of dicamba and 2,4-D has proved effective.  Work carried out in Western Samoa has also shown that metsulfuron methyl ester produces effective control.  It has been recommended that the plants be cut and the new growth sprayed.  When herbicides were applied in Western Samoa to regrowth four weeks after it had been slashed to the ground, glyphosate partially destroyed the foliage, but complete regrowth had occurred by 4 to 6 weeks after application.  Treatment with 2,4,5-T resulted in complete kill of foliage, but 5 to 15% of the plants had regrown after 8 weeks"  (Waterhouse, 1993, p. 80).

"Young plants can be sprayed by a herbicide such as triclopyr (Garlon 4).  Undiluted herbicide can be applied to the cut stems of larger plants with woody stems"  (Englberger, 2009; p. 8).

Biological: The chrysomelid beetle Phyllocharis undulata is a prospective biocontrol agent (see Julien (1992; p. 88) and Waterhouse (1993; pp. 73-93) for information on this and other possible agents).

Additional information:
Excerpt from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional online information about Clerodendrum chinense is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Clerodendrum chinense as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Clerodendrum chinense may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 186952 (Wilder, G.P. 1013).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 187042 (Smith, A.C. 5017).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1957. Voucher specimen #BISH 33646 (Koroiveibau, D. 10763).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1961. Voucher specimen #BISH 186985 (Comstock, J.A. 26).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 28904 (Bristol, M.L. 2377).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1973. Voucher specimen #BISH 417676 (Whistler, W.A. W 632).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1975. Voucher specimen #BISH 130097 (Whistler, W.A. W 3068).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 439419 (Cox, P.A. 45).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 439420 (Cox, P.A. 45).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491741 (Florence, J. 4062).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 492150 (Florence, J. 3709).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643926 (Florence 11424).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Englberger, Konrad. 2009. Invasive weeds of Pohnpei: A guide for identification and public awareness. Conservation Society of Pohnpei. 29 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Julien, M. H. (ed.). 1992. Biological control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds (third edition). CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 186 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1990. Voucher specimen #PTBG9134(Art Whistler 7662).

Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. 2003. Botanical and ethnobotanical inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii and Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 5. 626 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. 2000. Invasive plant species on Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 43 pp.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

U. S. Government. 2011. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) (on-line resource).

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1993. Biological control: Pacific prospects. Supplement 2. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 138 pp.

Waterhouse, D. F. 1997. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture and plantation forestry in the Southern and Western Pacific. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 93 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. The weeds of Manu‘a [unpublished checklist]. 18 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 2000. Plants in Samoan culture: The ethnobotany of Samoa. Isle Botanica. 234 pp. ISB: 0-9645426-6-8.

Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Unpublished technical report. 76 pp.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).