Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) C. D. Specht, Costaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 11 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Banksea speciosa J. Koenig; Costus sericeus Bl.; Costus speciosus (J. Koenig) Sm.

Common name(s): [more details]

Arohane: okeoke

Chinese: bi qiao jiang

English: cane-reed, crape ginger, crepe ginger, Malay ginger, spiral flag, wild ginger

Japanese: oo-hozaki-aame

Kwara‘ae: okaoka, wakawaka

Nangu: tebeangkombwapul

Palauan: isebsab

Pohnpeian: dihng, sinser weitahta, ting

Yapese: sauer, thowel, wanim

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Stems 1-3 m, bearing 2 or 3 branches , apex branched and spirally twisted. Petiole 5-7 mm; leaf blade ovate, oblong or lanceolate, 15-20 x 6-10 cm, abaxially glabrous to densely sericeous, base subrounded, apex acuminate or caudate-acuminate; leaf sheath tubular, 4-5 cm, margin hairy. Inflorescences a capital spike, terminal, ellipsoid or ovoid, 5-15 cm; bracts green tinged with bright red, ovate, ca. 2 cm, leathery, pubescent; bracteoles pale red, 1.2-1.5 cm, keeled. Calyx 1.8-2 cm, leathery, apex 3-lobed, lobes rigid and densely sericeous at apex, red after flowering.. Corolla tube shorter than calyx, lobes oblong-elliptic, ca. 5 cm, apex white or pinkish. Labellum white, trumpet-shaped, 6.5-9 cm, apex toothed and crisped, with edges overlapping. Fertile stamen petaloid, white with orange-yellow base, urceolate, ca. 4.5 x 1.3 cm, pubescent. Capsules red, globose, ca. 1.5 cm, slightly woody. Seeds black, glossy, ca. 3 mm long"  (Digital Flora of Taiwan).

"Herb, perennial, erect, robust, unbranched, to 2 m high or more, arising from a rhizome.  Leaves simple, alternate, spirally arranged, attached atop a sheath, blade oblanceolate to elliptic, 8-25 x 3-7 cm, the lower surface silky pubescent.  Flowers continuously through the year; flowers many, borne among purple bracts in a dense, ovoid to globose, terminal head 3-10 cm long.  Corolla of three fused subequal petals 4-6 cm long and a larger, cup-shaped labellum 5-9 cm long and to 10 cm wide, crepe-like, white, with a yellow anther.  Fruit an ellipsoidal many-seeded capsule"  (Whistler, 2000; p. 154).

"Tall plant with erect or spreading stems; leaves elliptic or obovate, up to 20 cm long or more, about 4-6 cm wide, pubescent beneath; shortly petiolate; inflorescence subterminal, large, to 10 cm long, with bracts about 1.5 cm long; flowers white, the calyx read, corolla white, 5-6 cm long; stamen crest yellow; capsule red; seeds black with a white fleshy aril" (Stone, 1970; p. 109).

Habitat/ecology:  "Fertile, moist soils in shaded places are preferred" (Whistler, 2000; pp. 154-155).

Propagation:  Bird-dispersed fruits and vegetatively (Staples et al, 2000; p. 20).

Native range:  Malaysia; commonly cultivated.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 4) Voucher: Flynn 6536 (PTBG)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1999) (voucher ID: PTBG 29706) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 79)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 66)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 40808) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	native	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. Voucher specimen) Voucher: BMW 5771 (BISH, BRI, GUAM)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 7) As Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) C. D. Specht Naturalized everywhere.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2005) (p. 15) Not common.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 106) Voucher cited: Glassman 2908 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 40) As Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Loenig) C. D. Specht. Vouchers cited: M.J. Balick 3808 (NY, PTBG), M.J. Balick 3852 (NY, PTBG), M.J. Balick 4017 (NY, PTBG), M.J. Balick 4081 (NY, PTBG), M.J. Balick 4165 (NY, PTBG), F.R. Fosberg 58423 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2908 (BISH), F. Sohl 78 (NY, PTBG), C.Y.C. Wong 54 (BISH) Invasive
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 438226) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 503776) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 699904) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1997) (voucher ID: PTBG 34655) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1999) (voucher ID: PTBG 34577) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2000) (voucher ID: PTBG 38723) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1948) (voucher ID: BISH 699903) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 191-192) Vouchers cited: DA 11748, DA 3176, DA 16530, DA 16793, DA 11306
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 34080) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 34081) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 34082) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 34083) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 379) Voucher cited: BRY 26364
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 379)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2502 (PAP) Ornementale commune, plus ou moins subspontanée.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 109)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R. (1995) (p. 18) Voucher cited: K. Nagata 3849 (BISH) Abundantly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1381)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. (2000) (p. 4) Vouchers cited: (West Maui) Oppenheimer & Annable H29909 (BISH), (East Maui) Oppenheimer H89932 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Frohlich, Danielle/Lau, Alex (2008) (p. 5) Voucher cited: D. Frohlich & A. Lau s.n. (BISH 725952)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 36)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Mili (Mile) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2010) (p. A4) Rare; single planting by private residence oceanside of Mili.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	probably native cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 142) Voucher cited: MacKee 28157
New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) New Guinea Island	New Guinea Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 192)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 23)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 41)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. Field notes.)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2010) (p. 9) As Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) C. D. Specht, voucher cited: Lorence 8220 (PTBG)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. Field notes)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 505201) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 505208) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 610708) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1967) (voucher ID: BNM 124) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (Koen.) Sm.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (2007) (voucher ID: BNM 4463) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. Field notes.)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 503824) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 505207) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	native	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. Field notes.)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	native	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. Field notes)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	native	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. Field notes.)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 505202) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Palau Rock Islands	Aulupse‘el Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 112)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	cultivated	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 109)
Papua New Guinea Bougainville Islands	Bougainville Island		Foreman, D. B. (1971) (p. 31)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced cultivated	Merrill, Elmer D. (1925) (p. 246) Occasionally cultivated for ornamental purposes.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 69)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 66)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Mikira (San Cristobal) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 79901) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Ndeni (Santa Cruz) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 79565) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Santa Isabel (Bughotu) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 634303) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 60)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 72)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 52)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 66)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (p. 29)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 354) As Costus speciosus (Koen.) Smith. In thin forests.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	native	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 29) Common
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	native	Ching-I Peng, ed. (2011) "Common in the central and southern Taiwan, often in thickets".
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1903) (voucher ID: BISH 127395) Taxon name on voucher: Costus speciosus (J.Konig) Sm.

Comments:  A problem elsewhere but not so far in Micronesia, where it is native (at least in some locations). A weedy species in French Polynesia. Naturalizing and potentially troublesome in American Samoa (Space & Flynn, 2000).

Control: 

Physical:  "Mechanical control by pulling is difficult but can be effective if done repeatedly for an extended period"  (Englberger, 2009; p. 17).

Chemical:  "Chemical control with triclopyr (Garlon 4) as foliar spray for young plants and stem application with undiluted Garlon 4, brushed or sprayed onto freshly cut stems, for older plants"  (Englberger, 2009; p. 17).

Additional information:
Additional online information about Cheilocostus speciosus is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Cheilocostus speciosus as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Cheilocostus speciosus may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1967. Voucher specimen #BNM124(Hardy, S. 82).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 2007. Voucher specimen #BNM4463(Balick et al. 4463).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1903. Voucher specimen #BISH 127395 (Seale, A.; collector's voucher number unknown).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1933. Voucher specimen #BISH 634303 (Brass, L.J. 3467).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 503776 (Wong, C.Y.C. 54).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 505202 (Hosaka, E.Y. 3357).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 505208 (Fosberg, F.R. 25756).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1948. Voucher specimen #BISH 699903 (Wong, C.C.Y. 407).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 699904 (Glassman, S.F. 2908).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 503824 (Fosberg, F.R. 32071).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 505201 (Fosberg, F.R. 32409).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 505207 (Fosberg, F.R. 32251).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 34081 (Vorakitaki, S. 11306).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1959. Voucher specimen #BISH 34083 (Pillay, S. 11748).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 34080 (Smith, A.C. 16793).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 34082 (Smith, A.C. 16530).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 79565 (Powell, J.M. 19402).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 79901 (Powell, J.M. 19422).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 438226 (Fosberg, F.R. 58423).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1991. Voucher specimen #BISH 610708 (Herbst, D.R. 9490).

Ching-I Peng, ed. 2011. Digital flora of Taiwan (online resource).

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Englberger, Konrad. 2009. Invasive weeds of Pohnpei: A guide for identification and public awareness. Conservation Society of Pohnpei. 29 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Foreman, D. B. 1971. A check list of the vascular plants of Bougainville, with descriptions of some common forest trees. Botany Bulletin No. 5. Division of Botany, Department of Forests. Lae, New Guinea. 194 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Frohlich, Danielle/Lau, Alex. 2008. New plant records from O‘ahu for 2007. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2007. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 100:3-12.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Palau. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 44 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2005. Botanical survey of the Yela River valley, Kosrae, F.S.M. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii. 19 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Merlin, M./Kigfas, A./Keene, T./Juvik, J. 1996. Giddi nge gakiiy nu Wa‘ab: Plants, People and Ecology in Yap State. Program on Environment, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, 121 pp.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 1 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 463 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1997. Voucher specimen #PTBG34655(M. J. Balick 3808).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1999. Voucher specimen #PTBG34577(M. J. Balick 4017).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1999. Voucher specimen #PTBG29706(Tim Flynn 6536).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2000. Voucher specimen #PTBG38723(M. J. Balick 4081).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG40808(Tim Flynn 7002).

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