Cestrum nocturnum L., Solanaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: dama de noche, dama di noche

English: lady of the night, night cestrum, night queen, night-blooming jasmine, night-flowering cestrum, night-flowering jasmine, queen of the night

Fijian: kara, thauthau, thauthau ni mbongi

Hawaiian: ‘ala aumoe, kūpaoa, onaona Iāpana

Maori (Cook Islands): ariki-va‘ine, ariki-va‘ine, tiare ariki va‘ine

Marshallese: joñoul ruo awa

Niuean: ike he po

Samoan: ali‘i o le pō, ali‘i o le pō, teine ‘o le pō, teine ‘o le pō

Tongan: laukau po‘uli

Tuvaluan: fafine o te po

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "A glabrous shrub with ovate-oblong petiolate obtuse leaves mostly 10-20 cm long; cymose racemes longer than petiole; flowers greenish-white or pale greenish-yellow; emitting a strong sweet fragrance at night; calyx green, 5-toothed, about 1/3 as long as the 2.0-2.5 cm corolla; corolla-lobes 5-6 mm long, obtuse, erect or spreading; 5 stamens included, puberulent at base, berry about 8-10 mm long, white, with 1-3 seeds"  (Stone, 1970; pp. 516-517).

Habitat/ecology:  Moist and wet forests and open areas. Forms dense, impenetrable thickets.  Widely planted for its nocturnal fragrance.  In Fiji, "cultivated in towns and villages and also abundantly naturalized in thickets and open forest"  (Smith, 1991; p. 36).  In Hawai‘i, "cultivated and naturalized"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1254-1255). In New Caledonia, "cultivé comme plante d'ornement, s'échappe des jardins sans devenir envahissant" (MacKee, 1994; p. 130).

Propagation:  White, bird-dispersed fruits.

Native range:  Tropical America and the West Indies.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1939) (voucher ID: BISH 181630) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 33)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1960) (voucher ID: BISH 10244) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (pp. 6-7)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (pp. 6-7)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 420150) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 99) Voucher cited: Kanehira 1631 (NY)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 36) Voucher cited: Smith 7507
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 181627) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 630145) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 36) Voucher cited: Tothill 534
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 36) Vouchers cited: Gibbs 686, Tothill 631, Gillespie 3980, Smith 5016, O. & I. Degener 32051, Smith 5802, Smith 9448, Gillespie 4381, DA 12109
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 34362) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 181622) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 181623) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 181624) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 181625) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 181626) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Marquesas Islands	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 271)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 271) Vouchers cited: Moore 452, Florence 8823, BRY 26425, BRY 26507
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 560371) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 271) Vouchers cited: Florence 8811, Florence 8258
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 492363) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 493586) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 547821) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1986) (voucher ID: BISH 553697) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Tubuai (Tupuai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643736) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 516-517)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1918) (voucher ID: BISH 181608) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 181609) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 181610) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2003) (p. 32) Voucher cited: Starr & Martz 010801-5 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1254-1255)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced	Wester, Lyndon (1992) (p. 149)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. (2000) (p. 8) East Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H99905 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2007) (p. 31) West Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & Tangalin H70603 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1254-1255)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	cultivated	Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89) Presence not verified; probably cultivated if present.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (pp. 18-19) Voucher cited: Fosberg 27035 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 181607) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 572828) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 127)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 197) Voucher cited: Thaman & Manner 15 (SUVA)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 130) Vouchers cited: Baumann 16055 s.loc., MacKee 12164, MacKee 21755, MacKee 29613, Poncet in MacKee 44801 Spontané (garden escapes)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 193) Vouchers cited: CHR 169990, CHR 170264
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 36)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 23)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 106) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9855 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 40)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 49) Voucher cited: Ross 13
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 6)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28515) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28832) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 417481) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 439416) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1979) (voucher ID: BISH 439471) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 36) Voucher cited: Sykes 833
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 59)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna (Horne) Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107) "Potential invader". Secondary forest, lowland dense forest.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 36)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 1222) "Waste places, sheltered gullies, scrub".
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Comments:  Invasive on Tahiti and in Samoa.

Invasive and widespread on Rarotonga and Mangaia, Cook Islands (Space & Flynn, 2002).

Very prevalent on ‘Eua, Tonga, in disturbed areas (Space & Flynn, 2001).

Initially became widespread on Guam, but now more of a localized problem, possibly indicating local limiting factors (Margie Falanruw, pers. com.)

Control: 

Chemical: Katie Cassel (Kōke‘e Museum) reports good control with triclopyr ester at 20% in crop oil applied basal bark.  Probably sensitive to foliar applications of triclopyr"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Photos and additional information at the Environment Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, web site of the Bay of Plenty Regional Council.

Additional online information about Cestrum nocturnum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Cestrum nocturnum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 181609 (Thompson, J.B. 261).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1918. Voucher specimen #BISH 181608 (Nelson, P. 76).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 181622 (Gillespie, J.W. 3980).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 181626 (Gillespie, J.W. 4381).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1939. Voucher specimen #BISH 181630 (Yuncker, T.G. 9191).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 181607 (Fosberg, F.R. 27035).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 181610 (Fosberg, F.R. 25417).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 572828 (Fosberg, F.R. 27035).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 181623 (Smith, A.C. 5016).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 181624 (Smith, A.C. 5802).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 181625 (Smith, A.C. 9448).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 181627 (Smith, A.C. 7507).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1960. Voucher specimen #BISH 10244 (Krauss, N.L.H. 462).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 28515 (Bristol, M.L. 1983).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 28832 (Bristol, M.L. 2305).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 34362 (Degener, O. 32051).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1973. Voucher specimen #BISH 417481 (Whistler, W.A. W1086).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 420150 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1535).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 439416 (Cox, P.A. 46).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1979. Voucher specimen #BISH 439471 (Cox, P.A. 194).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 493586 (Florence, J. 3155).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 492363 (Florence, J. 5492).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1986. Voucher specimen #BISH 553697 (Florence, J. 8011).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1987. Voucher specimen #BISH 547821 (Florence, J. 8258).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1987. Voucher specimen #BISH 560371 (Florence, J. 8823).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1991. Voucher specimen #BISH 630145 (McClatchey, W.C. 411).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643736 (Florence 11125).

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Oppenheimer, Hank. 2007. New plant records from Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, and Hawai‘i for 2006. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2006. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 96:17-34.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. 2000. New plant records from Maui, O‘ahu, and the Hawai‘i Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1999. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 64:1-10.

Smith, Albert C. 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 5. 626 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

St. John, H. 1987. An account of the flora of Pitcairn Island with new Pandanus species. Honolulu, 65 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. 2003. New plant records from the Hawaiian Archipelago. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2001-2002. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 74:23-34.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand, Volume IV: Naturalised pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch. 1365 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wester, Lyndon. 1992. Origin and distribution of adventive flowering plants in Hawai‘i. In: Stone, Charles P.; Smith, Clifford W. and Tunison, J. Timothy. Alien plant invasions in native ecosystems of Hawaii: Management and Research. University of Hawaii, Cooperative National Park Research Studies Unit, Honolulu. University of Hawaii Press. .

Whistler, W. A. 1984. Annotated list of Samoan plant names. Economic Botany 38:464.489.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 542 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1943. The flora of Niue Island. Bishop Mus. Bull. 178. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 126 pp.