Cestrum nocturnum L., Solanaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 17 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: dama de noche, dama di noche

Chinese: ye xiang shu

English: lady of the night, night cestrum, night queen, night-blooming jasmine, night-flowering cestrum, night-flowering jasmine, queen of the night

Fijian: kara, thauthau, thauthau ni mbongi

French: jasmin de nuit

Hawaiian: ‘ala aumoe, kūpaoa, onaona Iāpana

Japanese: yakokwa

Maori (Cook Islands): ariki-va‘ine, ariki-va‘ine, tiare ariki va‘ine

Marshallese: joñoul ruo awa

Niuean: ike he po

Rotuman: ai pua e pogi

Samoan: ali‘i o le pō, ali‘i o le pō, teine o le pō, teine o le pō

Spanish: galán de noche

Tongan: laukau po‘uli

Tuvaluan: fafine o te po

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "A glabrous shrub with ovate-oblong petiolate obtuse leaves mostly 10-20 cm long; cymose racemes longer than petiole; flowers greenish-white or pale greenish-yellow; emitting a strong sweet fragrance at night; calyx green, 5-toothed, about 1/3 as long as the 2.0-2.5 cm corolla; corolla-lobes 5-6 mm long, obtuse, erect or spreading; 5 stamens included, puberulent at base, berry about 8-10 mm long, white, with 1-3 seeds"  (Stone, 1970; pp. 516-517).

Habitat/ecology:  Moist and wet forests and open areas. Forms dense, impenetrable thickets.  Widely planted for its nocturnal fragrance.  In Fiji, "cultivated in towns and villages and also abundantly naturalized in thickets and open forest"  (Smith, 1991; p. 36).  In Hawai‘i, "cultivated and naturalized"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1254-1255). In New Caledonia, "cultivé comme plante d'ornement, s'échappe des jardins sans devenir envahissant" (MacKee, 1994; p. 130).

Propagation:  White, bird-dispersed fruits.

Native range:  Tropical America and the West Indies.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 62) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9191 (BISH)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1939) (voucher ID: BISH 181630) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 33)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1960) (voucher ID: BISH 10244) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (pp. 6-7) Voucher: Flynn 7018 (PTBG, BISH, US)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 351) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 88)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (pp. 6-7) Voucher: Flynn 6977 (PTBG, NY, US)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 420150) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 331) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 99) Voucher cited: Kanehira 1631 (NY)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (pp. 136-137)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 36) Voucher cited: Smith 7507
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 181627) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 630145) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 36) Voucher cited: Tothill 534
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 36) Vouchers cited: Gibbs 686, Tothill 631, Gillespie 3980, Smith 5016, O. & I. Degener 32051, Smith 5802, Smith 9448, Gillespie 4381, DA 12109
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 34362) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 181622) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 181623) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 181624) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 181625) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 181626) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 271) Vouchers cited: Moore 452, Florence 8823, BRY 26425, BRY 26507
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 8823 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 560371) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 93) "Wet habitats"
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 271) Vouchers cited: Florence 8811, Florence 8258
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 3155 (PAP), J. Florence 5096 (PAP), J. Florence 8011 (PAP), J. Florence 8258 (PAP), P. Morat 6397 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 492363) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 493586) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 547821) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1986) (voucher ID: BISH 553697) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence & W.R. Sykes 11125 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643736) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 516-517)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1918) (voucher ID: BISH 181608) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 181609) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 181610) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2003) (p. 32) Voucher cited: Starr & Martz 010801-5 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1254-1255)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Oppenheimer, Hank (2010) (p. 38) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & Perlman H50812 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. (2000) (p. 8) East Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H99905 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2007) (p. 31) West Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & Tangalin H70603 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1254-1255)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	cultivated	Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89) Presence not verified; probably cultivated if present.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (pp. 18-19) Voucher cited: Fosberg 27035 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 181607) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 572828) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 127)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 197) Voucher cited: Thaman & Manner 15 (SUVA)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 130) Vouchers cited: Baumann 16055 s.loc., MacKee 12164, MacKee 21755, MacKee 29613, Poncet in MacKee 44801 Spontané (garden escapes)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 193) Vouchers cited: CHR 169990, CHR 170264
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 36)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 23)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 106) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9855 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 40)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced cultivated	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 430) Widely cultivated for its flowers.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 49) Voucher cited: Ross 13
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 6) Voucher: Flynn 6931 (PTBG, US, SAMOA)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28515) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28832) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 417481) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 439416) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1979) (voucher ID: BISH 439471) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 326) Taxon name on voucher: Cestrum nocturnum
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 36) Voucher cited: Sykes 833
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 59)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced cultivated	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-5)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107) "Potential invader". Secondary forest, lowland dense forest.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (pp. 11, 38)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 36)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands	introduced invasive	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2010)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan.
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 217) Ornamental.
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 1222) "Waste places, sheltered gullies, scrub".
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 25) Cultivated only

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2010)

Comments:  Invasive on Tahiti and in Samoa.

Invasive and widespread on Rarotonga and Mangaia, Cook Islands (Space & Flynn, 2002).

Very prevalent on ‘Eua, Tonga, in disturbed areas (Space & Flynn, 2001).

Initially became widespread on Guam, but now more of a localized problem, possibly indicating local limiting factors (Margie Falanruw, pers. com.)

Control:  "Wear gloves when handling.

Physical:  Pull out small plants (all year round.), leave to Leave on site to rot down.

Chemical:  1. Cut down and paint stump (all year round): Tordon Brushkiller (100ml/L) or triclopyr 600 EC (100ml/L) or Yates Hydrocotyle Killer (500ml/L). 2. Spray (spring-summer): triclopyr 600 EC (30ml/10L) or Yates Hydrocotyle Killer (15ml/L)"  (Weedbusters New Zealand).

Katie Cassel (Kōke‘e Museum) reports good control with triclopyr ester at 20% in crop oil applied basal bark.  Probably sensitive to foliar applications of triclopyr"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:
Excerpt from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Photos and additional information at the Environment Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, web site of the Bay of Plenty Regional Council.
Information sheet from Weedbusters New Zealand.

Additional online information about Cestrum nocturnum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Cestrum nocturnum as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Cestrum nocturnum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 181609 (Thompson, J.B. 261).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1918. Voucher specimen #BISH 181608 (Nelson, P. 76).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 181622 (Gillespie, J.W. 3980).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 181626 (Gillespie, J.W. 4381).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1939. Voucher specimen #BISH 181630 (Yuncker, T.G. 9191).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 181607 (Fosberg, F.R. 27035).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 181610 (Fosberg, F.R. 25417).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 572828 (Fosberg, F.R. 27035).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 181623 (Smith, A.C. 5016).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 181624 (Smith, A.C. 5802).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 181625 (Smith, A.C. 9448).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 181627 (Smith, A.C. 7507).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1960. Voucher specimen #BISH 10244 (Krauss, N.L.H. 462).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 28515 (Bristol, M.L. 1983).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 28832 (Bristol, M.L. 2305).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 34362 (Degener, O. 32051).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1973. Voucher specimen #BISH 417481 (Whistler, W.A. W1086).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 420150 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1535).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 439416 (Cox, P.A. 46).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1979. Voucher specimen #BISH 439471 (Cox, P.A. 194).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 493586 (Florence, J. 3155).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 492363 (Florence, J. 5492).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1986. Voucher specimen #BISH 553697 (Florence, J. 8011).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1987. Voucher specimen #BISH 547821 (Florence, J. 8258).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1987. Voucher specimen #BISH 560371 (Florence, J. 8823).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1991. Voucher specimen #BISH 630145 (McClatchey, W.C. 411).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643736 (Florence 11125).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France. 2010. Les espéces envahissantes en outre-mer (online resource).

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 3 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 628 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG326(Tim Flynn 6931).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG331(Tim Flynn 6977).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG351(Tim Flynn 7018).

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