Celosia argentea L., Amaranthaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: christangayo

Chinese: qing xiang

Chuukese: tonenchuko

English: celosia, cock's comb, cockscomb, feather cockscomb, foxtail amaranth, red spinach, silver cockscomb

Palauan: chesechil a malk, esechila malk

Pohnpeian: repwen mwalek, ropon-malck

Samoan: māmoe, māmoe

Spanish: cresta de gallo, rabo de conejo

Tahitian: repe moa

Tongan: lisi

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Annual herb, erect, 0.4-2 m, simple or with many ascending branches.  Stem and branches strongly ridged and often sulcate, quite glabrous.  Leaves lanceolate-oblong to narrowly linear, acute to obtuse, shortly mucronate with the excurrent midrib, glabrous; lamina of the leaves from the centre of the main stem 2-15 x 0.1-3.2 cm, tapering below into an indistinctly demarcated, slender petiole; upper and branch leaves smaller, markedly reducing; leaf axils often with small-leaved sterile shoots.  Inflorescence a dense (rarely laxer below), many-flowered spike, 2.5-20 x 1.5-2.2 cm, silvery to pink, conical at first but becoming cylindrical in full flower, terminal on the stem and branches, on a long, sulcate peduncle up to c. 20 cm long, which often lengthens during flowering.  Bracts and bracteoles lanceolate or the lower deltoid, 3-5 mm, hyaline, more or less aristate with the excurrent midrib, persistent after the fall of the flower.  Perianth segments 6-10 mm, narrowly elliptic-oblong, acute to rather blunt, shortly mucronate with the excurrent midrib, with 2-4 lateral nerves ascending more than halfway up each segment, margins widely hyaline.  Filaments very delicate, free part subequalling or exceeding the staminal sheath, sinuses rounded with no or very minute intermediate teeth; anthers and filaments creamy to magenta.  Stigmas 2-3, very short, the filiform style 5-7 mm long; ovary 4-8-ovulate.  Capsule 3-4 mm, ovoid to almost globular.  Seeds c. 1.25-1.5 mm, lenticular, black, shining, testa very finely reticulate" (Dassanayake, 1981; pp. 3-4).

Habitat/ecology:  Commonly cultivated. In Fiji, "infrequently naturalized at low elevations and near streams" (Smith, 1981; p. 284). In Papua New Guinea, "a plant of roadsides, particularly where disturbance has been recent, and on building sites, earthworks, quarries, river-beds; also a weed in annual crops and sometimes in heavily-grazed pasture" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 56); "often occurring as a weed in dry open places such as roadsides and waste lands, as well as stream beds, from sea level to 1200 (-1800) m altitude" (Womersley, 1978; p. 30).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  "Probably originally from tropical Africa, but spreading early throughout tropical Asia and Malesia; many cultivars are widely grown in tropical and subtropical areas (Smith, 1981; p. 284).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 69-70)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31562 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 29)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. argentea and var. cristata
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. argentea and var. cristata
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) Vars. argentea and cristata
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. argentea and var. cristata
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. argentea and var. cristata
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Uman Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 69-70)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 69-70)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 69-70)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 12) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 69-70)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 57) Voucher cited: Glassman 2519 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 66) Vouchers cited: S.F. Glassman 2519 (BISH), C.Y.C. Wong 59 (BISH) Naturalized
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 284-285)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (p. 71)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence, D.H. Lorence, S.P. Perlman & W.L. Wagner 9462 (PAP) Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 39701) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (p. 71)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2004) (voucher ID: PTBG 41966) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (p. 71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 27) var. cristata. Voucher cited: Moore 776
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 27) Voucher cited: BRY 26392
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (p. 71)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 267) Voucher cited: Stone 4870 (GUAM) Cultivated and occasionally escapes.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 69-70)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1980) (voucher ID: PTBG 26635) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 5) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H80105 (BISH, PTBG)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 69-70)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1962) (p. 16) Vouchers cited: St. John 21669 (BISH), Fosberg 26728 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 61)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 86)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 12) Voucher cited: Schmid 980
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 12) Vouchers cited: Le Rat 2815, Däniker 1213, MacKee 6449, MacKee 11868, MacKee 34254; var. cristata (L.) O. Ktze; vouchers cited: MacKee 15649, MacKee 26497 Spontané
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 41) cv. cristata. Voucher cited: CHR 169897
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 40)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 100)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 53) Voucher: Lorence 9891 (PTBG, BNM, BISH, NY, US)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 184) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 96)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 53)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1967) (voucher ID: BNM 1115) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1966) (voucher ID: BNM 1114) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1968) (voucher ID: BNM 63) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 96)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 53) Spreading.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 96)
Palau Sonsorol Group	Sonsorol Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 109)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	cultivated	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 164) Ornamental plants, frequent in the planations and gardens of the natives.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 56) Widespread at low altitudes.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Womersley, John S., ed. (1978) (pp. 30-31)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 127) At low and medium altitudes in the settled areas; an introduced weed.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 32) Voucher cited: Ross 40
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 284) Taxon name on voucher: Celosia argentea
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 56)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	introduced cultivated	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (p. 30)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 73)
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 78)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 73)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 73)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 182) var. argentea and var. childsii Hort.
South Korea South Korea	South Korea (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 73)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 24) Casual
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 73)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 108)
Maldives Maldive Islands	Maldive Islands		Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 18)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Celosia argentea is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Celosia argentea as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Celosia argentea may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1966. Voucher specimen #BNM1114(Blackburn, B.S. & M. Becherrak 50).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1967. Voucher specimen #BNM1115(Blackburn, B.S. 142).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1968. Voucher specimen #BNM63(Blackburn, B. 197).

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Dassanayake, M. D., gen. ed. 1981. A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Vol I. Amerind Pub. Co., New Delhi. 508 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J. 2004. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 2. Paris. IRE Editions, Publications Scientifiques, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 41. 503 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 58. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 37 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 39 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 2 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 530 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro. 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research 8(2)/2004: 171-191.

Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. 1985. Contribution à la connaissance de la végétation et de la flore de Wallis & Futuna. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris, 4e sér., 7, section B. Adansonia 3 : 259-329.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG284(Tim Flynn 6946).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2008. Voucher specimen #PTBG184(David H. Lorence 9891).

Oppenheimer, Hank L. 2003. New plant records from Maui and Hawai‘i Counties. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2001-2002. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 73:3-30.

Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty]. 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 638 pp. ISBN 9980-66-000-7.

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Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 227 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

St. John, H. 1987. An account of the flora of Pitcairn Island with new Pandanus species. Pacific Plant Studies 46. Honolulu, 65 pp. [Privately published].

Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral R. 2005. A tropical garden flora: plants cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and other tropical places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 908 pp.

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Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

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Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

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