Capsicum frutescens L., Solanaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Low risk (based on second screen), score: 5 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: doni, doni halum tano, doni-halomtano, doni-sali, donné sali, dont sali

Chuukese: amwiik, lonni mmwiik yammwiik, moek, muik, mwi, mwi, mwi, mwiik, mwik, yammwiik

English: bird chili, bird pepper, bird's-eye chili, bird's-eye pepper, hot pepper, perennial chili, red chili, spur pepper, Tabasco pepper, tobasco

Fijian: mboro, mboro nganga, mboro ni vavalangi, rokete

French: piment, poivre rouge, poivrons

Hawaiian: nīoi, nīoi pepa

Hindi: mircha

I-Kiribati: te beneka

Maori (Cook Islands): ‘ōporo, oporo

Marshallese: pepa

Nauruan: epeba

Niuean: polo magiho, polo mangiho, polo misi, polo miti

Palauan: meringel

Pohnpeian: chilee, mwik, sele

Rakahanga-Manihiki: oporo, oporo

Samoan: polo, polo papalagi, polo vao, polu uli

Satawalese: amuek

Spanish: aji, chile, guindilla

Tahitian: oporo, ‘ōporo

Tongan: polo, polo fifisi

Tongarevan (spoken): ‘ōpolo

Tongarevan (written): ‘ōporo

Ulithian: mukh

Yapese: mwech mwig, t‘ebil tebil

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Annual or short-lived perennial herbs; stems striate, glabrous or sparsely pubescent with simple hairs on young growth.  Leaves simple, alternate, ovate to broadly lanceolate, 2.5-7 cm long, 1.5-3 cm wide, margins entire, apex acute to acuminate, base subcuneate, oblique, petioles narrowly winged above, 0.8-2 cm long.  Flowers solitary in the leaf axils and stem forks or more commonly 2-4 per axil, pedicels 1-2.5 cm long, stout in fruit, erect; calyx cupular, truncate, 3-4 mm long, the lobes minute; corolla greenish white or greenish yellow, divided ca. 1/2 to base, the lobes triangular, ca. 1.5 cm in diameter; stamens 5, inserted toward base of corolla tube; filaments ca. 1-2 mm long; anthers bluish, oblong, opening by slits, 1.5-2 mm long; ovary 2-celled, ovate, 1.5-2 mm long; style 1, erect, 3-4 mm long; stigma small, terminal.  Berries erect, usually bright red, rarely purple or yellow, pungent, ellipsoid-conical to lanceoloid, 10-20 mm long, 3-7 mm in diameter.  Seeds yellowish, flattened-lenticular, 3-4 mm long"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1253).

Habitat/ecology:  In Hawai‘i, "cultivated and naturalized usually in low elevation, dry to mesic, disturbed areas"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1253).  In Fiji, "freely escaped from cultivation and naturalized in coconut plantations, cultivated fields, and clearings, and along rocky coasts and on open hillsides from near sea level to about 400 m"  (Smith, 1991; p. 27). In New Caledonia, "cultivé et souvent subspontané" (MacKee, 1994; p. 130). Arid lowlands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 194).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  "Probably originating in South America but early widespread throughout the New World and subsequently into all tropical and subtropical areas." (Smith, 1991; p. 27).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Swain's Island	Swain's Island	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A. (1983) (pp. 14-15) Vouchers cited: Whistler 3421, Diefenderfer s.n.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 39) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31588 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Ohba, T. (1994) (p. 62) Voucher cited: 59109
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31701 (US, BISH), Fosberg 31668 (US, BISH, Fo), Falanruw 1886 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Anatahan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Anatahan Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 39) Voucher cited: Falanruw 1651 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 39) Vouchers cited: Falanruw 2250 (US), Falanruw 2265 (US), Falanruw 2267 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Maug Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 60)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 39) Vouchers cited: Falanruw 1750? (US), Evans 2343 (US), Evans 2389 (US, BISH, Fo, NY)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 60)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007) Naturalized
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007) Naturalized
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007) Naturalized
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced invasive cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007) Naturalized
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced invasive cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007) Naturalized
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Palmerston (Avarau) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007) Naturalized
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2007) Naturalized
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Alcedo	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Santiago Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Dublon (Tonowas) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Etal (Ettan) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Namoluk (Nómwunuuk) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Namoluk (Nómwunuuk) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Marshall, Mae/Fosberg, F. R. (1975) (p. 45) Vouchers cited: Marshall 5 (US), Marshall 8 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Nomwin (Nómwiin) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. (1989) (p. 58) Voucher cited: Manner & Mallon 228 (GUAM)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Satawan Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Udot Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Ulalu (Romonum) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Uman Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 22) Voucher cited: Lorence 7873 (PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Ant Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Kapingamarangi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Nukuoro Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 99) Voucher cited: Takamatsu 885 (BM)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 30) Voucher cited: Lorence 8107 (PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Eauripik Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. (1969) (p. 13) Voucher cited: Fosberg 46655 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Faraulep (Faraulap) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ifalik (Ifaluk) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Satawal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Satawal Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1969) (p. 11) Voucher cited: Fosberg 46916 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Merlin, M./Kigfas, A./Keene, T./Juvik, J. (1996) (p. 111)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 27) Voucher cited: Smith 304
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 27) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 934
Fiji Fiji Islands	Matuku Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 27) Voucher cited: Bryan 285
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 27) Voucher cited: Smith 7933
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 27) Voucher cited: Gillespie 4499
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 27) Vouchers cited: Seemann 346, Gillespie 4656.1
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 27) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 221, DA 5948, Greenwood 221A, DA 12187
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Marquesas Islands	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 270)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 270) Voucher cited: H.M. Smith 16
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mopelia (Mapetia, Maupiha‘a, Maupihoa, Mopiha‘a) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 33) Single plant; voucher cited: Sachet 988 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 270) Vouchers cited: Moore 548, Moore 648, BRY 26632
French Polynesia Society Islands	Manuae (Scilly) Atoll (Society Islands)	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 142)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 270) Vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 145, BRY 25476, BRY 26308
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 516) Voucher cited: Stone 3789 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1253)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1253)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1253)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1253)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Banaba Island	Banaba (Ocean) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Kiribati Line Islands	Flint Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, Harold/Fosberg, F. Raymond (1937) (p. 4) Voucher cited: St. John & Fosberg 17473 (BISH)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tabiteuea Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 11) "Rare; few bushes planted in Bikini Projects garden".
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 103)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 244)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll		Anderson, Donald (1951) (p. i) Voucher cited: Anderson 3665
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 12) "Uncommon; planted by few houses for spice".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 126)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 197)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 130) Vouchers cited: Däniker 27 (Z), Hürlimann 29, MacKee 3829; var. cerasiferum (Mill.) L.H. Bailey, voucher cited: MacKee 20625 Spontané
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 130) Voucher cited: Baumann 13473 Spontané
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (pp. 192-193) Voucher cited: CHR 170263
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 105) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9631 (BISH), Yuncker 10026 (BISH) "Established and occasional in thickets and cut-over areas".
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Raulerson, L./Rinehart, A. F./Falanruw, M. C. (1996) (p. 35)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Palau Sonsorol Group	Sonsorol Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 243)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 55)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Voucher cited: Soakai 320
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Tofua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Voucher cited: Scarth-Johnson 91
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 237) "Occasional throughout Tonga".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Voucher cited: Parks 16164
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 237) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15354
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Vouchers cited: Moseley s.n. (p.p.), Ilolahia 154
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 237) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15037
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Voucher cited: Soakai 933
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 237) Cited: Crosby.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced	Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 49)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced cultivated	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 59)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1959) (p. 18)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 14) Not seen in 1961 or 1963.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 107)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced cultivated	Topp, J. M. W. (1988) (p. 11)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced	Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. (1971) (p. 157) Voucher cited: Bourne 13 (K)

Additional information:  Additional online information about Capsicum frutescens is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Capsicum frutescens may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Anderson, Donald. 1951. The plants of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 7. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 4 pp. + 7 pp. appendix.

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1959. Vegetation and flora of Wake Island. Atoll Research Bulletin 67. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 20 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1969. Plants of Satawal Island, Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 132. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 13 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. 1969. A collection of plants from Fais, Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 133. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Heine, Heino. 1976. Acanthacées, Bignoniacées, Boraginacées, Solanacées. Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et Dépendances. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Vol. 7, 212 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Pohnpei. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 21 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. 1989. An Annotated list of the vascular plants of Pulawat Atoll. Micronesica 22:23-63.

Marshall, Mae/Fosberg, F. R. 1975. The natural history of Namoluk Atoll, eastern Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 189. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 53 pp + photos.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

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