Canna indica L., Cannaceae

Click on an image for links to BIGGER PICTURES

Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 17 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: mongos halum-tano

Chinese: mei ren jiao

Chuukese: apeellap, oruuru, yapellap, yoruuru

English: African arrowroot, arrowroot, canna, edible canna, Indian shot, purple arrowroot, red canna, wild canna

Fijian: gasau ni ga, ngasau ni nga

French: balisier comestible, tous-les-mois

Hawaiian: ali‘ipoe, li‘ipoe, poloka

I-Kiribati: te riti

Japanese: dandoku

Mangarevan: corona

Maori (Cook Islands): nūāenga, nuāēnga, pia renga, tiare papa‘ā

Marshallese: an

Pohnpeian: iouiou, iouiou en wai, iuoiuo en wai, yuyu-n-wai

Samoan: fagamanu, fagamanu, fanamanu, fanamanu

Spanish: achira, caña comestible, platanillo, yuquilla

Tahitian: pia-raroto‘a, pio pio, re‘a pua‘aniho

Tongan: fa‘akole, fanamanu, misimisi

Wallisian: fagafaga, fanafana, fanamanu

Yapese: aruru, bucolnisepan

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Rhizome developed, much branched. Stems stout, to 2.5 m. Leaf sheath green or purple; petiole short; leaf blade adaxially green, abaxially and at margin green or purple, ovate-oblong to oblong, 30-60 x 10-20 cm. Inflorescence a raceme of cincinni. Bracts light purple, ovate, ca. 8 mm. Flowers 1 or 2 per cincinnus. Sepals pale purplish green, lanceolate, ca. 1.5 cm. Corolla tube apricot yellow, ca. 1.5 cm; lobes erect, red to apricot yellow with purplish apex, lanceolate, ca. 4 cm. Staminodes 2 (or 3), erect, red with apricot yellow base, oblanceolate, 4-5.5 cm x 7-10 mm, 1 with apex emarginate; labellum red, sometimes with yellow spots, lanceolate, ca. 4.5 cm, margin revolute, apex emarginate; fertile stamen with filament reddish apricot yellow, lanceolate, ca. 4.2 cm; anther ca. 9 mm. Ovary green, globose, ca. 6 mm in diameter, warty. Style red to apricot yellow, narrow, ca. 6 cm, base adnate to staminode column. Capsule broadly ovoid, 1.2-1.8 cm"  (Flora of China online).

"Herbaceous, not usually over 5 ft high; leaves rather fleshy, with thin margins, usually not more than 1 ft. long and half as broad, lanceolate to sub-orbicular, veins arching-parallel.  Flowers red, yellow or variegated, showy, the staminodia black, capsular, nearly globose, enclosing a variable number of round, shiny black seeds"  (Stone, 1970; p. 112).

Habitat/ecology:  Grows in thickets, crowding out other plants.  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized primarily in disturbed mesic to wet forest, 10-610 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1375).  In Fiji, "this distinctive plant is naturalized and often frequent around villages, along roadsides, in coconut plantations, in clearings, and in forest near streams, at elevations from near sea level to 450 m"  (Smith, 1979; pp. 216-217). In Tonga, "common in low moist areas" (Yuncker, 1959; p. 86).

Propagation:  Seed (bird-dispersed) and rhizomes

Native range:  "West Indies, Central and South America; widely naturalised in other warm countries" (Healy and Edgar,1980; p. 44).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 39)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Whistler 3484
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island	introduced	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 42)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 44)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Vouchers cited: Garber 781, Yuncker 9282, Whistler 1389, Whistler 3328
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1991) (voucher ID: PTBG 10464) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 33)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced	Setchell, William Albert (1924) (p. 104)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1975) (voucher ID: BISH 430369) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 11) "Naturalised beside tracks etc." Vouchers cited: W.R. Sykes NI 54(CHR); G. Uhe 1194 (K); R.O. Gardner 6000 (AK); 1902, J.H. Maiden & J.L. Boorman (NSW)
Chile (offshore islands) Juan Fernández Islands	Isla Más a Tierra (Robinson Crusoe Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Atkinson, Rachel/Sawyer, John (2011)
Chile (offshore islands) Juan Fernández Islands	Isla Más a Tierra (Robinson Crusoe Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Danton, Philippe/Perrier, Christophe/Martinez Reyes, Guido (2006) (pp. 477, 523, 552) "En RC, es cultivada en el pueblo de San Juan Bautista, en jumerosos jardines del pueblo y se encuentran algunas matas que se escaparon alrededor de los esteros en el pueblo y hasta el sector de la Plazoleta del Yunque".
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114) Ornamental hybrids
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 81993) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 596093) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 664891) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Chuuk Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 109625) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Fefan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Fefan Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 31) Cultivated and naturalized.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Namonuito (Namonweito, Nómwun Wiité) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. (1989) (p. 42) Voucher cited: Manner & Mallon 128 (GUAM), Manner & Mallon 129 (GUAM), Manner & Mallon 130 (GUAM)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 31)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 31) Cultivated and naturalized.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 503989) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. 30) Also ornamental hybrids
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 7) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 107) Voucher cited: Glassman 2571 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 39) Vouchers cited: E. Albert 69 (NY), F. R. Fosberg 58483 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2571 (BISH), P. Raynor 161 (NY, PTBG) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 109622) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 503992) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 43878) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Faraulep (Faraulap) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Faraulep (Faraulap) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 503990) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ifalik (Ifaluk) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114) Ornamental hybrids
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Lamotrek Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114) Ornamental hybrids
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Woleai Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114) Ornamental hybrids
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114) Also ornamental hybrids
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1948) (voucher ID: BISH 109624) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 503991) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1968) (voucher ID: BNM 91) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Voucher cited: Smith 301
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 109616) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 886
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mothe Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Voucher cited: Bryan 476
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mothe Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 109618) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Voucher cited: Milne 148
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Voucher cited: Smith 7497
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 109617) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Voucher cited: Seeman 625
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Vouchers cited: DA 16872, DA 16873
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 34076) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 34077) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 699237) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 699238) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Voucher cited: DA 10222
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 34075) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 699239) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 216-217) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 149, DA 11357, H.B.R. Parham 192, Gillespie 2813, DA 16942, DA 11205
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 34074) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 34078) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 34079) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 109615) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Agakauitai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Aukena Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, Harold (1988) (p. 12) Vouchers cited: Agassiz 95 (GH), Fosberg 11010 (BISH)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 1000631) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 1000632) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2004) (voucher ID: PTBG 42253) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 24) Vouchers cited: Raynal 17830, Fosberg 64833 (US) Persisting from cultivation.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 4951 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 699236) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 310-311) Voucher cited: Moore 16
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 310-311) Voucher cited: Setchell & Parks 239
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 5752 (PAP), J. Florence & W.R. Sykes 11220 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 552849) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643962) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643963) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rapa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 6538 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rimatara (Rimitara) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 6133 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 112)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1916) (voucher ID: BISH 109626) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1918) (voucher ID: BISH 109627) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1375-1376)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1375-1376)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1375-1376)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1375-1376)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1375-1376)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1375-1376)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 77)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 73)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. Raymond (1990) (p. 34)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 109621) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 48) Voucher cited: Hassall 189 (SUVA)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 26) Vouchers cited: Deplanche s.n., Vieillard 537, Baumann 6797, MacKee 40479
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Kermadec Islands	introduced invasive	Healy, A. J./Edgar, E. (1980) (p. 44)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. (1996) (p. 451) Adventive
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 224) Reported present in cultivation by Sykes, not seen by Space & Flynn. Vouchers cited: CHR 169970, CHR 169965, CHR 169964, CHR 169963
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 40)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 22)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 40) Canna sp.
Palau Hatohobei Group	Tobi Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 95)
Palau Hatohobei Group	Tobi Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 1001383) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. Field notes.)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 84)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 53)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 114) Also ornamental hybrids
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1974) (voucher ID: BNM 10047) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79)
Palau Sonsorol Group	Sonsorol Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 94)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	cultivated	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 111)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Merrill, Elmer D. (1925) (pp. 247-248) In the settled areas, occurring in waste places in and near settlements.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 62)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 1) Along sandy seashores, extending inland in open sandy valleys along streams, in places growing at altitudes as high as 800 m; usually gregarious.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 103) "Secondary forest gaps".
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 29) Voucher cited: St. John 14985
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 10815 (PAP) Ornementale assez banale, naturalisée.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 662246) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 69)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1906) (voucher ID: BISH 440254) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 65)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Guadalcanal Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1948) (voucher ID: BISH 402108) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 55)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘ano Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 71)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 71)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 86) "Common in low moist areas throughout Tonga"
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 59)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 86) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15472
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 109603) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 51)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 83) Voucher cited: Soakai 789
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 86) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15060
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 109602) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1989) (voucher ID: PTBG 3911) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuatoputapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1976) (voucher ID: BISH 456105) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 65)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 83) Vouchers cited: Crosby 251, Soakai 822
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 86) Voucher cited: Yuncker 16159
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 56)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 109604) Taxon name on voucher: Canna indica L.
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Tuvalu Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	introduced cultivated	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (p. 25)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 40)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 62)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Queensland Herbarium (2002) (p. 2)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 62)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (pp. 354-355)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 62)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 191) var. flava Roxb. and var. rubura Aiton
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Healy, A. J./Edgar, E. (1980) (p. 44) Voucher cited: A.J. Healy (CHR58041)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 23) Naturalised
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 62)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 107) Naturalized
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2010) Cette herbacée envahit principalement les milieux anthropisés ou perturbés.
French Territory of Mayotte Mayotte Islands	Mayotte Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2010)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Agalega Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. (1983) (p. 116)

Comments:  Also cultivated hybrids.

A weed species in New Zealand.

Although observed mainly in cultivation, this plant has the potential to be invasive and difficult to remove due to its spread by rhizomes.

Control:  Fragments remaining in soil will resprout so followup control by digging or spraying is required. Plant the site with local native plants to shade out seedlings.

Physical:  Dig out scattered plants (all year round). remove all roots and rhizomes and dispose of at a refuse transfer station.

Chemical:  1. Cut stems and paint: metsulfuron-methyl 600g/kg (1g) + glyphosate (50ml) + penetrant/1L water, or a 3-5mm layer of Vigilant gel. Mulch the leaves and dispose of seeds at a refuse transfer station.
2. Overall spray (spring-summer): metsulfuron-methyl 600g/kg (2g) + glyphosate (100ml) + penetrant/10L water"  (Weedbusters New Zealand).

Additional information:
Information from the Global Invasive Species Database.
Information sheet from Weedbusters New Zealand.
Information from the ASEAN Tropical Plant Database.

Additional online information about Canna indica is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Canna indica as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Canna indica may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Atkinson, Rachel/Sawyer, John. 2011. Naturalized species in the Juan Fernández Archipelago, Chile. Unpublished spreadsheet.

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1968. Voucher specimen #BNM91(Blackburn 239).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1974. Voucher specimen #BNM10047(Otobed, D.O. P-10047).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1906. Voucher specimen #BISH 440254 (Vaupel, F. 114).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1916. Voucher specimen #BISH 109626 (Guerrero, J. 722).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1918. Voucher specimen #BISH 109627 (Nelson, P. 162).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1924. Voucher specimen #BISH 109618 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 476).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 109615 (Gillespie, J.W. 2813).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1933. Voucher specimen #BISH 109616 (Smith, A.C. 301).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 503989 (Fosberg, F.R. 26021).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 109625 (Wong, C.C.Y. 291).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1948. Voucher specimen #BISH 109624 (Wong, C.C.Y. 396).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1948. Voucher specimen #BISH 402108 (Giffen 50).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 109622 (Glassman, S.F. 2571).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 109621 (Anderson, D. 3738).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 109602 (Yuncker, T.G. 15060).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 109603 (Yuncker, T.G. 15472).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 109604 (Yuncker, T.G. 16159).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 109617 (Smith, A.C. 7497).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1956. Voucher specimen #BISH 34075 (Parham, J.W. 10222).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1956. Voucher specimen #BISH 699239 (Parham, J.W. 10222).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 34079 (Ledua, M.K. 11205).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 503990 (Fosberg, F.R. 47359).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 34074 (Parham, J.W. 16086).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 34076 (Smith, A.C. 16873).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 34077 (Smith, A.C. 16872).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 34078 (Koroiveibau, D. 16942).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 81993 (Stoddart, D.R. 2255).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 699237 (Smith, A.C. 16872).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 699238 (Smith, A.C. 16873).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1975. Voucher specimen #BISH 430369 (Whistler, W.A. W 2786).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1976. Voucher specimen #BISH 456105 (Kirch, P.V. 216).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 503992 (Fosberg, F.R. 58483).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 503991 (Fosberg, F.R. 60124).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 596093 (Sykes, W.R. 399894).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 552849 (Florence, J. 5752).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 699236 (Florence, J. 4951).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000631 (W.L.Wagner 6175).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000632 (W.L.Wagner 6176).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1990. Voucher specimen #BISH 664891 (Sykes, W.R. 473853).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1991. Voucher specimen #BISH 662246 (Florence 10815).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643962 (Florence 11220).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643963 (Florence 11220).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 1001383 (A.K.Kepler 92-74).

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France. 2010. Les espéces envahissantes en outre-mer (online resource).

Danton, Philippe/Perrier, Christophe/Martinez Reyes, Guido. 2006. Nouveau catalogue de la flore vaculaire de l'archipel Juan Fernández (Chile) [Nuevo catálogo de la flora vacular del Archipélago Juan Fernández (Chile)]. Acta Bot. Gallica 153(4):399-587.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. 1983. List of the recorded vascular flora of Agalega. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1990. A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 330. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 100 pp.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Healy, A. J./Edgar, E. 1980. Flora of New Zealand, Volume III: Adventive cyperaceous, petalous & spathaceous monocotyledons. Government Printer, Wellington, New Zealand. 220 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. 1989. An Annotated list of the vascular plants of Pulawat Atoll. Micronesica 22:23-63.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 2 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 530 pp.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 1 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 463 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro. 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research 8(2)/2004: 171-191.

Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. 1985. Contribution à la connaissance de la végétation et de la flore de Wallis & Futuna. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris, 4e sér., 7, section B. Adansonia 3 : 259-329.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Parham, J. W. 1958. The weeds of Fiji. Department of Agriculture, Fiji. Bulletin No. 35. 196 pp.

Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty]. 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 638 pp. ISBN 9980-66-000-7.

Queensland Herbarium. 2002. Invasive Naturalised Plants in Southeast Queensland, alphabetical by genus. Modified from: Batianoff, George N. and Butler, Don W. (2002). Assessment of Invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland. Appendix. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 27-34. 11 pp.

Setchell, William Albert. 1924. American Samoa; part I. Vegetation of Tutuila Island. part II. Ethnobotany of the Samoans. part III. Vegetation of Rose Atoll. The Carnegie Institution of Washington. 275 pp. + illus.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 227 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 41 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. 2000. Invasive plant species on Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 43 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

St. John, H. 1987. An account of the flora of Pitcairn Island with new Pandanus species. Pacific Plant Studies 46. Honolulu, 65 pp. [Privately published].

St. John, Harold. 1988. Census of the Flora of the Gambier Islands, Polynesia. Pacific Plant Studies 43. Honolulu, Hawaii. 34 pp. [Privately published].

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. 1996. New records and other information on the vascular flora of the Kermadec Islands. New Zealand Journal of Botany 34:447-462.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1984. Annotated list of Samoan plant names. Economic Botany 38:464.489.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. The weeds of Manu‘a [unpublished checklist]. 18 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1991. The ethnobotany of Tonga: The plants, their Tongan names, and their uses. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Botany 2. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 155 pp. ISBN 0-930897-57-9.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 2000. Plants in Samoan culture: The ethnobotany of Samoa. Isle Botanica. 234 pp. ISB: 0-9645426-6-8.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1945. Plants of the Manua Islands. Bishop Mus. Bull. 184. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 73 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).