Breynia disticha J.R.Forst. & G.Forst., Phyllanthaceae

Click on an image for links to BIGGER PICTURES

Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Low risk, score: -5 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Breynia nivosa (W. Bull) Small; Phyllanthus nivosus W. G. Sm. (also varieties and cultivars)

Common name(s): [more details]

English: foliage-flower, leaf-flower of the Pacific Islands, snowbush, snowbush breynia, summer snow, sweetpea bush

Maori (Cook Islands): kāpaiē, kāvaiē, maemae

Nauruan: eomonon

Pohnpeian: katuk

Spanish: arbolito de Navidad

Tongan: pepe

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Monoecious shrubs or small trees, glabrous throughout, the stipules small; leaves along main branches spirally arranged and reduced, distichous along ultimate branchlets, short-petiolate, simple, the blades entire; inflorescences axillary, the lower axils bearing fascicles of 3-many male flowers, the higher axils bearing solitary female flowers, the flowers lacking petals and disk; male flowers with the calyx fleshy, obovoid-turbinate, shortly 6-lobed, the stamens 3, the filaments connate into a column bearing 2-locular anthers apically, these not apiculate; female flowers with the calyx campanulate to cupuliform, 6-lobed or "toothed, persistent and sometimes accrescent, the ovary 3-locular, the walls thickened distally, each locule with 2 ovules, the stigmas small, subulate-dentiform, incurved; fruit a capsule dehiscing into 2-seeded cocci, the seeds with a somewhat fleshy testa, ventrally invaginated.

"As seen in Fiji, this attractive cultivated plant is a shrub to 2 m high, with the distal leaves mottled with green, white, pale pink and purple, found in or near villages and towns near sea level.  The male calyx is greenish yellow, the female calyx white with green markings, the filament column white, and the anthers pale yellow" (Smith, 1981; pp. 466-467).

Habitat/ecology:  In Hawai‘i, "widely cultivated as a hedge plant. It has become naturalized by spreading vegetatively via root suckers where formerly planted around abandoned homesites on Maui and Kauai" (Lorence et al., 1995; p. 35). "Espèce généralement trouvée dans la végétation buissonnante à basse altitude; spontanée aussi au Vanuatu. Formes à feuilles blanches ou roses, largement cultivées comme arbuste ornemental" (McPherson, 1991; pp. 16-18).

Propagation:  Seed? Has a tendency to sucker profusely.

Native range:  China and southeastern Asia through Malesia to Australia, New Caledonia and the New Hebrides, now widely cultivated throughout the tropics (Smith, 1981; pp. 466-467).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 45) Cultivated ornamental. Voucher cited: Yuncker 9195 (BISH)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. nivosa
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. nivosa
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. nivosa
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. nivosa
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 22)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 120) Voucher cited: M.J. Balick 3911 (NY)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 466-467) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 727, 727B; Smith 9623, Degener & Ordonez 13667, Meebold 16893
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 40) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64877 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 102) Voucher cited: Moore 198
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 102) Vouchers cited: BRY 24818, Grant 4337, Florence 2863
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2863 (PAP) Ornementale utilisée comme haie.
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Raro‘ia Atoll	introduced cultivated	Doty, Maxwell S. (1954) (p. 37)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'nivosa'. Voucher cited: J. Florence 5756 (PAP) Cultivée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'nivosa'. Voucher cited: J. Florence 6194 (PAP); also cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J. (1997) (p. 138)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) cv. 'Roseo-picta' Cultivée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 387)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 133)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Parker, James L./Parsons, Bobby (2012) (p. 67) Voucher cited: J. Parker & R. Parsons BIED119 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy W./Wagner, Warren L. (1995) (p. 35)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy W./Wagner, Warren L. (1995) (p. 35) East Maui. Voucher cited: T. Flynn & Sidler 2573 (BISH, PTBG)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 25)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Thaman, R. R. (1987) ?
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 133)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 100)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 91)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (pp. 126-127)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 466-467)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	native cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 50) Cv. Roseopicta; vouchers cited: Soudot in MacKee 25315, MacKee 27728
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1983) (voucher ID: PTBG 31446) Taxon name on voucher: Breynia disticha
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 86) Voucher cited: CHR 169719
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 72) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9580 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 14) Possibly naturalizing.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 100)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 133)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 96)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. Field notes.)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘ano Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 71)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 71)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	‘Uiha Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 71)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 169) "Occasional as a hedge plant in villages".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 58)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 51)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 65)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 466-467)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 178) As Breynia nivosa cv. Roseopicta
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 19) Cultivated only

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 107)
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced	Williams, D. G. (1994) (p. 22)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island		Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. (1971) (p. 152) Voucher cited: Rhyne 617 (US)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Whistler, W. Arthur (1996) (pp. 27, 33)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1995) (voucher ID: PTBG 37917) Taxon name on voucher: Breynia nivosa (Bull) Small
Maldives Maldive Islands	Malè Atoll	cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 25) Voucher cited: Fosberg 36877 (US)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Agalega Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. (1983) (p. 121)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Breynia disticha is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Breynia disticha as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Breynia disticha may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Doty, Maxwell S. 1954. Floristic and Ecological Notes on Raroia Atoll, Tuamotus. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 33. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 41 pp.

Florence, J. 1997. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 1. Paris. Editions de l'Orstom, Institut Français de Recherche Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 34. 393 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 58. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 37 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. 1983. List of the recorded vascular flora of Agalega. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy W./Wagner, Warren L. 1995. Contributions to the flora of Hawai‘i. III. New additions, range extensions, and rediscoveries of flowering plants. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Miller, Scott, E., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 41:19-58.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

McPherson, Gordon/Schmid, Maurice. 1991. Euphorbiaceae-Phyllanthoideae, Phyllanthus. Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et Dépendances. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Vol. 17, 329 pp.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1995. Voucher specimen #PTBG37917(Art Whistler 9721).

Parker, James L./Parsons, Bobby. 2012. New plant records from the Big Island for 2010-2011. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2011. Part II: Plants. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 113:65-74.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral/Imada, Clyde T. 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawai‘i. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers No. 65. 35 pp.

Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. 1971. Geography and ecology of Diego Garcia Atoll, Chagos Archipelago. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 149. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 237 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wester, Lyndon. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reseach Bulletin 287:1-38.

Whistler, W. A. 1991. The ethnobotany of Tonga: The plants, their Tongan names, and their uses. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Botany 2. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 155 pp. ISBN 0-930897-57-9.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Whistler, W. Arthur. 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica. 49 pp.

Williams, D. G. 1994. Vegetation and flora of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 404. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 29 pp.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1943. The flora of Niue Island. Bishop Mus. Bull. 178. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 126 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1945. Plants of the Manua Islands. Bishop Mus. Bull. 184. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 73 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.