Bixa orellana L., Bixaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Low risk (based on second screen), score: 1 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: achiote, achoti

Chinese: hong mu

English: annato, annatto, arnatto, arnotto, lipstick plant, lipstick tree

Fijian: nggesa, nggisa, qesa

French: atole, roucou, roucouyer

Hawaiian: ‘alaea, ‘alaea la‘au, kūmauna

Japanese: hiryu-sida, okenoki

Maori (Cook Islands): ‘uaeva

Palauan: búrek, burk

Pohnpeian: doaloa rais

Samoan: loa, loa, loa

Spanish: achiote, achote, bija

Tahitian: ‘uaefa

Tongan: loa

Wallisian: lo‘a, loa

Yapese: rang

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Shrub or small tree 2-10 m tall.  Young twigs, inflorescences and leaves finely lepidote and ± glabrescent.  Twigs rusty lepidote, glabrescent, terete, smooth, 4-5 mm diameter.  Leaves remote, 3-5 cm apart, alternate, spirally arranged, simple chartaceous, ovate to broadly so, (6-) 10-15 (-16) cm, base cordate, rarely truncate, apex attenuate, margin entire; 5 main veins radiating from insertion of petiole, central vein with 4-7 pairs of looping lateral veins, flat or slightly raised above, strongly prominent below; petiole terete, glabrescent, 1-1.5 mm diameter, thickened at apex and base, 4-12 cm long; stipules lepidote, 5-8 mm long, narrowly triangular, soon caducous, leaving a pair of prominent almost annular scars at each node.  Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, in terminal several- to many-flowered bracteate panicles or corymbs, 6-15 cm long; bracts 5-10 mm long, soon caducous.  Pedicels ± terete, densely reddish squamulose, 1-1.5 mm diameter, 5-8 mm long, swollen apically with 5 (-6) large sessile glands, alternating with the sepals.  Sepals (4-) 5, free, imbricate, caducous, ovate to orbicular, spoon-shaped, 9-12 mm long, apex rounded, densely finely lepidote outside, sparsely so inside.  Petals glabrous, (4-) 5 (-7), free, imbricate, ± unequal, think papery, obovate, 2-3 x 1-2 cm, apex rounded or retuse, white, pink, lavender or mauve.  Stamens numerous, filaments filiform, free, 10-15 mm long; anthers 1 mm long.  Ovary ± globose, 2-3 mm high, with a dense covering of fleshy bristles, 1-locular with 2 parietal placentas bearing many ovules; style 10-15 mm long, thickened upwards curved in bud, stigma with 2 obscure teeth.  Fruit a 2-valved loculicidal capsule, ovate to broadly so, 2-4 x 2-3.5 cm, with rounded, acute or acuminate apex, densely covered with bristles to 8 mm long; seeds numerous, obovoid, angular, 4-5 mm long, the seed coat producing a strong red dye"  (Henty, 1981; pp. 1-3).

"An arborescent shrub with dark ovate acuminate subcordate leaves 5-15 cm long, 4-11 cm wide, entire or angled, on moderately long petioles about 1/3 the length of the blade; flowers showy, white or pink, nearly 5 cm broad; fruit 2-valved, ovoid, red, spiny, 2.5-5 cm long; seeds many, ovate, with a scarlet covering"  (Stone, 1970; 426).

Habitat/ecology:  "Annatto is shade-intolerant and must have disturbance or a broken forest canopy to become established. All the naturally growing annatto shrubs in Puerto Rico are found on neglected or abandoned farmland, some of which has grown up to early secondary forest. Rainfall ranges from 1000 mm to 3000 mm per year in areas where the species grows naturally or under cultivation. Soils with textures from sands to clays are colonized. The species tolerates relatively low base saturation and moderate compaction. Anatto is vulnerable to overtopping and smothering by trees, shrubs, vines, and grass. Plants that have become overtopped and shaded cease to flower and bear fruit. The species is frost sensitive (von Carlowitz 1991)  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

In Hawai‘i, "sparingly naturalized" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 390).  In Fiji, "noted from near sea level to an elevation of about 600m, usually cultivated but also occasionally naturalized on edges of forest, in thickets, and in waste places" (Smith, 1981; p. 670).  In Papua New Guinea, "In gardens and secondary regrowth or disturbed forest to 2000 m altitude, on well-drained areas or margins of Metroxylon swamps.  It is unquestionably naturalized in Papuasia but certainly owes its distribution to man.  It can be expected in flower and fruit throughout the year, often on the same plant"  (Henty, 1981; p. 3).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  "Neotropics, now widely distributed in tropical regions worldwide" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 390).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 52) "Moderate on all of the islands".
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 52) "Moderate on all of the islands".
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 52) "Moderate on all of the islands". Voucher cited: Yuncker 9224 (BISH)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced cultivated	Setchell, William Albert (1924) (p. 68)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 173)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 173)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 48)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 14) Utwe to Walung road, one seen.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 173)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 59) Voucher cited: Glassman 2901 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 74) Vouchers cited: M.J. Balick 3937 (NY, PTBG), A. Dores 207 (NY, PTBG), F.R. Fosberg 26361 (BISH), S.F. Glassman 2901 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 625 (BISH)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1998) (voucher ID: PTBG 33314) Taxon name on voucher: Bixa orellana L.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 43552) Taxon name on voucher: Bixa orellana
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 173)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 670) Vouchers cited: Smith 6783, Greenwood 424A, Bierhorst F70, DA 16856, DA 13482
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 670) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 424, Degener 14898, H.B.R. Parham 111, DA 273, DA 396, Valentine 5
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 4407 (PAP), J. Florence 6674 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 22)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 51) Voucher cited: Fosberg 61009
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 51) Voucher cited: BRY 26654
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 51) Vouchers cited: Grant 4550, Cheung 007
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2650 (PAP) Naturalisée. "Ornementale rare à Tahiti".
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 426) Voucher cited: Stone 4017 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 173) Probably cultivated.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 390) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 390) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 390) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 390) Sparingly naturalized.
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 23) Vouchers cited: MacKee 25602, Kusser in MacKee 26388, MacKee 32062, Bégaud in MacKee 37174 Spontané
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 51) Single tree reported by Sykes, 1970. Present status unknown. Voucher cited: CHR 168847
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 39)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 100)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 173)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 96)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1966) (voucher ID: BNM 863) Taxon name on voucher: Bixa orellana L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1966) (voucher ID: BNM 209) Taxon name on voucher: Bixa orellana L.
Papua New Guinea Bougainville Islands	Bougainville Island		Foreman, D. B. (1971) (p. 35)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Henty, E. E., ed. (1981) (pp. 1-3)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 103) In and about towns, usually planted, but at least persisting after cultivation is abandoned.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced cultivated	Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 26)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	introduced invasive	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Cultivated, tolerant of poor soils but intolerant of shade. Guangdong, Yunnan.
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 103)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 19) Cultivated only
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Cultivated, tolerant of poor soils but intolerant of shade.

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 106) Naturalized
French Territory of Mayotte Mayotte Islands	Mayotte Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2010) naturalisée, potentiellement envahissant

Additional information:
Information from the World Agroforestry Centre's AgroForestryTree Database.
Fact sheet from "Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions" (PDF format).
Information from the ASEAN Tropical Plant Database.

Additional online information about Bixa orellana is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Bixa orellana as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Bixa orellana may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1966. Voucher specimen #BNM863(Blackburn, B. E-12).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1966. Voucher specimen #BNM209(Blackburn, B. E-11).

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France. 2010. Les espéces envahissantes en outre-mer (online resource).

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Foreman, D. B. 1971. A check list of the vascular plants of Bougainville, with descriptions of some common forest trees. Botany Bulletin No. 5. Division of Botany, Department of Forests. Lae, New Guinea. 194 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Francis, John K., ed. 2009. Wildland Shrubs of the United States and its Territories: Thamnic Descriptions General Technical Report IITF-WB-1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service International Institute of Tropical Forestry and Shrub Sciences Laboratory (online resource).

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Henty, E. E., ed. 1981. Handbooks of the flora of Papua New Guinea, vol. 2. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. 276 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 3 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 628 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. 1985. Contribution à la connaissance de la végétation et de la flore de Wallis & Futuna. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris, 4e sér., 7, section B. Adansonia 3 : 259-329.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1998. Voucher specimen #PTBG33314(M. J. Balick 3937).

Parham, J. W. 1958. The weeds of Fiji. Department of Agriculture, Fiji. Bulletin No. 35. 196 pp.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 37:1-69. .

Setchell, William Albert. 1924. American Samoa; part I. Vegetation of Tutuila Island. part II. Ethnobotany of the Samoans. part III. Vegetation of Rose Atoll. The Carnegie Institution of Washington. 275 pp. + illus.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral R. 2005. A tropical garden flora: plants cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and other tropical places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 908 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1984. Annotated list of Samoan plant names. Economic Botany 38:464.489.

Whistler, W. A. 1991. The ethnobotany of Tonga: The plants, their Tongan names, and their uses. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Botany 2. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 155 pp. ISBN 0-930897-57-9.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1945. Plants of the Manua Islands. Bishop Mus. Bull. 184. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 73 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).