Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson, Acanthaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 12 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Justicia gangetica L.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: asystasia, Chinese violet, coromandel, Philippine violet

French: herbe le rail, herbe piment, herbe pistache

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Decumbent herb, tending to be bushy sometimes slightly woody below, stems geniculate below, branches ascending or erect, irregularly appressed puberulent, especially at or near nodes, stems somewhat angular or striate; leaves thin, ovate to almost orbicular, apex acuminate, base obtuse to subcordate, margins entire, few pairs of veins; stipules none; racemes terminal, strongly one-sided or secund (cymose?), becoming elongate, pedicels slightly curved, distally very short, 1-3 mm, bracts and bracteoles triangular acuminate, 1-2 mm long; calyx-lobes lanceolate-acuminate, 5-7 mm long, hairy; corolla 3-4 cm long, purple to yellow or white, tube 0.5-1 cm long, tending to be slightly curved, throat narrowly campanulate, slightly compressed dorsiventrally, lobes suborbicular, slightly flaring, obtuse to rounded, throat and lobes very thinly puberulent outside; capsule about 3 cm long, basal stipe-like part 1.5 cm, distal, fertile part irregularly ellipsoidal or ovoid, acuminate; seed irregularly disk-shaped, pale, margin irregularly scalloped, sides rugose" (Fosberg et al, 1993; pp. 24-25).

Habitat/ecology:  "Chinese violet is a rapidly growing perennial, shrubby herb which grows to 1 m height but can grow over shrubs up to 3 m tall.  It can smother all vegetation in the herbaceous layer.  Chinese violet grows in dry habitats between sea level and 300 m" (C.W. Smith, 1985).  In Hawai‘i, "cultivated and commonly becoming naturalized, primarily in urban areas or in low elevation, disturbed habitats"  (Wagner et al., 1999); "in mesic to dry habitats"  (Motooka et al., 2003)..  In Fiji, "cultivated or naturalized near settlements near sea level"  (A.C. Smith, 1985).  In Niue, "naturalised in some waste areas in and around the villages.  In Alofi, one or two sloping banks near the radio station were almost carpeted with this plant.  It was especially evident on ground that had fairly recently been cleared of scrub" (Sykes, 1970; p. 37).

Propagation:  Seed, rhizomes. The seeds are dispersed from explosive capsules but long-distance dispersal is effected by man (C.W. Smith, 1985; p. 185).

Native range:  India, Malay Peninsula, Africa.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 5) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9393
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 83857) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1939) (voucher ID: BISH 127439) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 255)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 420284) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 63)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 25) Specimen collected: BMW 5800 (BISH, BRI, AD)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (2000) (voucher ID: BISH 687773) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 25)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 10) Lelu, cult.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. (2002) (p. 62)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 124) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 738, 738A, 1115; DA 10830, 11546, 12111; H.B.R. Parham 55
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1945) (voucher ID: BISH 695484) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1993) (voucher ID: BISH 662589) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643311) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643418) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 62) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64911 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 607776) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	University of California (2006) "Cultivated in gardens and disturbed areas".
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 574233) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia (Genus of Acanthaceae)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 19) Voucher cited: Fosberg 63569
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 599295) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 19) Vouchers cited: BRY 24840, Florence 2634
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1997)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491047) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 558267) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia (Genus of Acanthaceae)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 255)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 573203) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. (2000) (p. 1) Vouchers cited: Oppenheimer H119820 (BISH), Oppenheimer H119821 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 168)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Oppenheimer, Hank (2007) (p. 18) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H100636 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 168)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 168)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 168)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 255) Presence not verified.
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 255)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 28)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 255)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 98)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 4) "Rare; single plant in container by private residence in Ine".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 57)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 78) Vouchers cited: Scully 127N (US?), Hassall 231 (SUVA)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 8) Vouchers cited: MacKee 28505, Létocart in MacKee 44674
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 37) Voucher cited: CHR 169945
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 5)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 7)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 24)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 109) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9805 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 39)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 84) ssp. gangetica
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79) ssp. gangetica
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79) ssp. gangetica
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79) ssp. gangetica
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	possibly introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 5) Voucher cited: Whistler 2246
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 698180) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 49)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘ano Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 70)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 1) Vouchers cited: Soakai 322, Soakai 703
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 243) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15796
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 127438) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 664363) Taxon name on voucher: Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 70)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 1) Voucher cited: Soakai 1032
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 168)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	New South Wales	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, Barbara (year unknown) See comments below.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	possibly introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	possibly introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	possibly introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 105) Garden escape
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. (1991) (pp. 51-61)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) Subsp. micrantha (Nees) Ensermu. "Naturalisé/±envahissant"
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 38)

Comments:  A potential problem species in French Polynesia.

Subsp. micrantha is a serious invader in Malaysia and Indonesia.  Small infestations are being eradicated in northern New South Wales, Australia. (Barbara Waterhouse, pers. com.)

Control: 

Chemical:  "Probably sensitive to hormone-type herbicides" (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).

Additional online information about Asystasia gangetica is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Asystasia gangetica may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1939. Voucher specimen #BISH 127439 (Yuncker, T.G. 9393).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1945. Voucher specimen #BISH 695484 (Greenwood, W. 1115).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 127438 (Yuncker, T.G. 15,796).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 698180 (Wisner, A.W. 8).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 420284 (Evans, M. 1999).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 83857 (Whistler, W.A. W 307).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 664363 (Buelowm, G.P. 824).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1981. Voucher specimen #BISH 573203 (Raulerson, L. 674).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491047 (Florence, J. 2634).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 599295 (Fosberg, F.R. 63569).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 574233 (Florence, J. 5009).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 607776 (Fosberg, F.R. 64911).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 558267 (Florence, J. 9262).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643311 (Florence 11663).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643418 (Florence 11664).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1993. Voucher specimen #BISH 662589 (Florence 12168).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 2000. Voucher specimen #BISH 687773 (Waterhouse, B.M. 5800).

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L. 1993. Flora of Micronesia. Part 5. Bignoniaceae--Rubiaceae. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 81: 1-135.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. 2002. Invasive/weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. In: Invasive species and their management. Micronesica Suppl. 6:61-65.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. 1991. Effects of alien plant invasions on native vegetation remnants on La Reunion (Mascarenes Islands, Indian Ocean). Environmental Conservation 18 (1):51-61.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Oppenheimer, Hank. 2007. New plant records from Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, and Hawai‘i for 2006. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2006. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 96:17-34.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. 2000. New plant records from Maui, O‘ahu, and the Hawai‘i Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1999. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 64:1-10.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Smith, Albert C. 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 5. 626 pp.

Smith, Clifford W. 1985. Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai‘i's Native Biota. In: Stone, Charles P. and Scott, J. Michael, eds. Hawai‘i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and Management. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Manoa.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 41 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

University of California. 2006. Moorea Digital Flora Project (online resource).

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian. 2007. Arno plants [preliminary working listing of plant species]. Unpublished checklist, 13 pp.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, Barbara. 0. Barbara Waterhouse, pers. com.

Waterhouse, D. F. 1993. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 141 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Unpublished technical report. 76 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1943. The flora of Niue Island. Bishop Mus. Bull. 178. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 126 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.