Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn., Polygonaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 19 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: cadena de amor, flores kádena

English: bride's tears, chain-of-love, Confederate vine, coral vine, coralita, hearts on a chain, love-vine, Mexican creeper, Mexican love vine, mountain rose, queen's jewels

French: liane antigone, liane corail, rosa-de-montana

Palauan: dilngau

Pohnpeian: rohsapoak

Spanish: corazon bello, kadena de amor

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Robust vine to 10 m long or more; petioles 0.6-1.5 cm long; leaf blades 2.5-7.5 (10) cm long, cordate-ovate, hastate-ovate, or triangular, prominent reticulately veined, acutish to acuminate (and often apiculate), the lower ones much larger; inflorescence paniculate, the branches bearing flowers in clusters along the rachis, the rachis tip tendrillate; flowers bright pink or white, enlarging 1-4 (5) cm long; achenes conical, sharply 3-angled above, ca 6 mm long, much exceeded by the veiny, persistent, enlarged perianth."  (Welsh, 1998). "A vine; leaves angular, textured; broadly ovate, 3-9 cm long, cordate; petioles 1-5 cm long; racemes several-flowered; pedicels 1 cm; flowers pink in some forms, white in others; fruiting very rarely; fruit an achene" (Stone, 1970; p. 263).  A white-flowered horticultural variety exists.

Habitat/ecology:  The plant grows well in disturbed areas and is well adapted to dry coral cliffs and their derived soils. It tolerates drought by defoliation and regrows strongly after rain" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 19).  "Completely smothers native plants in the wet season, out-competing vines and understorey plants.  Leaves dry out and drop during the dry season providing fuel for damaging fires." (Smith, 2002; p. 44). Smothering vine.  Often escapes cultivation. Dry to moist lowland areas. Favors limestone (basic) soils. 

In Hawai‘i, "commonly cultivated and now sparingly naturalized in disturbed areas, 0-25 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1060, 1888).  In Fiji, "cultivated in gardens and hedges near sea level and also naturalized along roadsides and in waste places"  (Smith, 1981; p. 305). In Tonga, "occasional in villages or along roadsides" (Yuncker, 1959; p. 106). In New Caledonia, "cette espèce ornementale est commune dans les jardins et parfois naturalisée" (MacKee, 1994; p. 116).  In Papua New Guinea, "cultivated in lowland regions; sometimes found wild at roadsides, particularly on banks and cutting-faces"  (Womersley, 1978; p. 223).

Propagation:  "Spreads...by its trailing stems, which are broken off and carried about during earthmoving. Buried stems produce roots at the nodes, whilst aerial stems develop into tangled masses of linked plants. It also probably reproduces by seed, which fall by gravity from the plant. The viability of the seeds in the soil is unknown but is probably several years." (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 19).

Prolific seed producer. Seeds float on water, which helps transport them to new locations. Fruits and seeds are eaten and spread by domestic and wild animals (birds, pigs).

"Tubers can be spread by the movement of soil.  Vegetative reproduction from root suckers also seems to occur.  As an ornamental creeper the plant is spread via the nursery trade." (Smith, 2002; p. 44).

Native range:  Mexico, now common in tropical and warm countries.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 59) *See comments below.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Falanruw 2154 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1980) (p. 212) Voucher cited: Falanruw 3266 (US) Probably persisting from cultivation.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Ohba, T. (1994) (p. 57) Voucher cited: CBM-BS-58975
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 5)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 13)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 13)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 13)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 664866) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 664886) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 5)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (pp. 3, 10) A few cultivated individuals noted.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 56)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 27)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1938) (voucher ID: BISH 617428) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 305) Vouchers cited: DA 12127, DA 14431
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 28) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64926 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491176) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Hao (Hau) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Rangiroa (Rairoa) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Rurutu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1934) (voucher ID: BISH 170675) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 263) Voucher cited: Stone 4155 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (pp. 3, 9)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2006) (p. 40) Voucher cited: Starr & Starr 050517-1 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 21)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 80543) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 601747) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 601748) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 11)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 102) Not seen on this survey and may no longer be present.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	cultivated	Herbst, D. R. (1988)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 115)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 182) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58679 (US), Thaman & Manner 59 (SUVA), Swarbrick 9562 (BRIU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 116) Vouchers cited: Shepherd in Mueller s.n. (MEL), Franc 481, Däniker 1683, MacKee 16076, MacKee 25180, MacKee 43458
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 170) Voucher cited: CHR 168716
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 7)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 50) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9960 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 8) Subject of eradication program.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 84)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Womersley, John S., ed. (1978) (p. 223)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 31) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & B. Christian 11190, St. John 14992
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 12)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Orapa, Warea (2005) Escaping cultivation in Honiara and Munda
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘afeva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 640483) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 106) "Occasional in villages or along roadsides"
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Martz, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2002) (pp. 23-24) Voucher cited: Starr & Martz 990505-10 (BISH)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 141)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 44)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 141)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 44) Naturalized around old homesteads.
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 29)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (pp. 19, 104)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/envahissant"

Comments:  Extensively invading disturbed areas and forest edges on the northern half of Guam; much less so on Saipan, Tinian and Yap. Although only a few cultivated plants were noted on Pohnpei, it is apparently not a recent introduction, as it was noted in cultivation by Glassman (1952; p. 56) (Space & Falanruw, 1999).

Invasive in the Virgin Islands (Fred Kraus, communication to Aliens Listserver). Invasive on calcareous soils in Timor (Barbara Waterhouse, pers. com.).

Control: 

Physical: Cutting alone is ineffective. Underground tubers must be removed or plants will re-sprout.

Chemical: "Pending the results of field trials infestations...should be sprayed with 2% Roundup plus Pulse after rain when the leaves are free of dust and the plants are growing vigorously" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 19).

Additional information:  Additional online information about Antigonon leptopus is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Antigonon leptopus may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1934. Voucher specimen #BISH 170675 (Fosberg, F.R. 11878).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1938. Voucher specimen #BISH 617428 (St.John, H. 19763).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 80543 (Russell, D.J. 73).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491176 (Florence, J. 2798).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 601747 (Wester, L. 2097).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 640483 (G.Buelow 3272).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 601748 (Lee, M.A.; collector's voucher number unknown).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1990. Voucher specimen #BISH 664866 (Sykes, W.R. 473917).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1990. Voucher specimen #BISH 664886 (Sykes, W.R. 473917).

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Florence, J. 2004. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 2. Paris. IRE Editions, Publications Scientifiques, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 41. 503 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1980. Additional records of vascular plants from the northern Mariana Islands. 2. Micronesica 16: 211-214.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Herbst, D. R. 1988. Botanical survey of Kwajalein Missile Range, Marshall Islands. Mimeograph report for the Environmental Department of the U. S. Army, Kwajalein Atoll.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Pohnpei. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 21 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Ohba, T. 1994. Flora and vegetation of the northern Mariana Islands, Micronesia. Biological Expedition to the Northern Mariana Islands, Micronesia. In A. Asakua & T. Furuki, eds.  Natural History Research, Special issue no. 1, Chiba, Japan: Natural History Museum and Institute. pp. 13-69.

Orapa, Warea. 2005. Warea Orapa, Weed Mangement Officer, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, pers. com. (Trip Report, Solomon Islands, 19 April to 10 May, 2005).

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Smith, Nicholas M. 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide. Environment Centre NT, Inc. 112 pp.

Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane. 2000. Invasive plant species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 31 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 41 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

St. John, H. 1987. An account of the flora of Pitcairn Island with new Pandanus species. Honolulu, 65 pp.

Starr, Forest/Martz, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. 2002. New plant records from the Hawaiian archipelago. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 69:16-27.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. 2006. New plant records from the Hawaiian Archipelago. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2004-2005. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 87:31-43.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

U. S. Government. 2006. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) (on-line resource).

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

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