Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn., Polygonaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 19 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: cadena de amor, flores kádena

English: Confederate vine, Mexican creeper, Mexican love vine, bride's tears, chain-of-love, coral vine, coralita, hearts on a chain, love-vine, mountain rose, mountain-rose coralvine, queen's jewels

French: liane antigone, liane corail, rosa-de-montana

Palauan: dilngau

Pohnpeian: rohsenpoak suwed

Spanish: bellísima, corazon bello, kadena de amor

Tongan: ‘ufi

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Robust vine to 10 m long or more; petioles 0.6-1.5 cm long; leaf blades 2.5-7.5 (10) cm long, cordate-ovate, hastate-ovate, or triangular, prominent reticulately veined, acutish to acuminate (and often apiculate), the lower ones much larger; inflorescence paniculate, the branches bearing flowers in clusters along the rachis, the rachis tip tendrillate; flowers bright pink or white, enlarging 1-4 (5) cm long; achenes conical, sharply 3-angled above, ca 6 mm long, much exceeded by the veiny, persistent, enlarged perianth."  (Welsh, 1998). "A vine; leaves angular, textured; broadly ovate, 3-9 cm long, cordate; petioles 1-5 cm long; racemes several-flowered; pedicels 1 cm; flowers pink in some forms, white in others; fruiting very rarely; fruit an achene" (Stone, 1970; p. 263).  A white-flowered horticultural variety exists.

Habitat/ecology:  The plant grows well in disturbed areas and is well adapted to dry coral cliffs and their derived soils. It tolerates drought by defoliation and regrows strongly after rain" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 19).  "Completely smothers native plants in the wet season, out-competing vines and understorey plants.  Leaves dry out and drop during the dry season providing fuel for damaging fires." (Smith, 2002; p. 44). Smothering vine.  Often escapes cultivation. Dry to moist lowland areas. Favors limestone (basic) soils. 

In Hawai‘i, "commonly cultivated and now sparingly naturalized in disturbed areas, 0-25 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1060, 1888).  In Fiji, "cultivated in gardens and hedges near sea level and also naturalized along roadsides and in waste places"  (Smith, 1981; p. 305). In Tonga, "occasional in villages or along roadsides" (Yuncker, 1959; p. 106). In New Caledonia, "cette espèce ornementale est commune dans les jardins et parfois naturalisée" (MacKee, 1994; p. 116).  In Papua New Guinea, "cultivated in lowland regions; sometimes found wild at roadsides, particularly on banks and cutting-faces"  (Womersley, 1978; p. 223).

Propagation:  "Spreads...by its trailing stems, which are broken off and carried about during earthmoving. Buried stems produce roots at the nodes, whilst aerial stems develop into tangled masses of linked plants. It also probably reproduces by seed, which fall by gravity from the plant. The viability of the seeds in the soil is unknown but is probably several years." (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 19).

Prolific seed producer. Seeds float on water, which helps transport them to new locations. Fruits and seeds are eaten and spread by domestic and wild animals (birds, pigs).

"Tubers can be spread by the movement of soil.  Vegetative reproduction from root suckers also seems to occur.  As an ornamental creeper the plant is spread via the nursery trade." (Smith, 2002; p. 44).

Native range:  Mexico and possibly Guatemala; cultivated and naturalized elsewhere (GRIN).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 59)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Falanruw 2154 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1980) (p. 212) Voucher cited: Falanruw 3266 (US) Probably persisting from cultivation.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Ohba, T. (1994) (p. 57) Voucher cited: CBM-BS-58975
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 5)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 13)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 13)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 13)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 664866) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 664886) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 5)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 22) Invasive species.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 90) "Potential invader"
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (pp. 3, 10) A few cultivated individuals noted.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 56)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 124) Voucher cited: F.R. Fosberg 58521 (BISH) Invasive
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 90) "Potential invader"
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1938) (voucher ID: BISH 617428) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 305) Vouchers cited: DA 12127, DA 14431
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1989) (voucher ID: PTBG 32616) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook & Arn.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2013)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2013)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2013)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2013)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: S.P. Perlman, K.R. Wood & J.-Y. Meyer 15867 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 40884) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook & Arn.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 28) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64926 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2798 (PAP) Ornementale commune à Tahiti, tend à se naturaliser.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491176) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Hao (Hau) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Hao (Hau) Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2997 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Rangiroa (Rairoa) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Rangiroa (Rairoa) Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1934) (voucher ID: BISH 170675) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 263) Voucher cited: Stone 4155 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 94)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (pp. 3, 9)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1965) (voucher ID: PTBG 23179) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2006) (p. 40) Voucher cited: Starr & Starr 050517-1 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1060) Sparingly naturalized.
Japan (offshore islands) Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 21)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 80543) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 601747) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 601748) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 11)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 102) Not seen on this survey and may no longer be present.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	cultivated	Herbst, D. R. (1988)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 115)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 182) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58679 (US), Thaman & Manner 59 (SUVA), Swarbrick 9562 (BRIU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 116) Vouchers cited: Shepherd in Mueller s.n. (MEL), Franc 481, Däniker 1683, MacKee 16076, MacKee 25180, MacKee 43458
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 170) Voucher cited: CHR 168716
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 7)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 50) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9960 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 8) Subject of eradication program.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 84)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 66)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 79)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 13)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1966) (voucher ID: BNM 621) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	introduced cultivated	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 162) In gardens and parks.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Womersley, John S., ed. (1978) (p. 223)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced cultivated	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 125) Common in cultivation for ornamental purposes.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 31) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & B. Christian 11190, St. John 14992
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 333-334)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 12)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Orapa, Warea (2005) Escaping cultivation in Honiara and Munda
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘afeva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 640483) Taxon name on voucher: Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 106) "Occasional in villages or along roadsides"
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 10)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Martz, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2002) (pp. 23-24) Voucher cited: Starr & Martz 990505-10 (BISH)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island		Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (p. 24) Not seen in this survey, probably eradicated.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 141)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 44)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 141)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 44) Naturalized around old homesteads.
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013) Possibly native in western part.
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Honduras (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 29)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 82) Cultivated ornamental.
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 14) Casual

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (pp. 19, 104)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/envahissant"
Maldives Maldive Islands	Malè Atoll	cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 17)
French Territory of Mayotte Mayotte Islands	Mayotte Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2013)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	Invasive Species Specialist Group (2017)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)

Comments:  Extensively invading disturbed areas and forest edges on the northern half of Guam; much less so on Saipan, Tinian and Yap. Although only a few cultivated plants were noted on Pohnpei, it is apparently not a recent introduction, as it was noted in cultivation by Glassman (1952; p. 56) (Space & Falanruw, 1999).

Invasive in the Virgin Islands (Fred Kraus, communication to Aliens Listserver).

Invasive on calcareous soils in Timor (Barbara Waterhouse, pers. com.).

Planting of this species is prohibited in Miami-Dade County, Florida (U.S.) (Miami-Dade County Dept. of Planning and Zoning, 2010).

Control: 

Physical: "Pulling plants and harvesting underground tubers is effective if used repeatedly for an extended period"  (Englberger, 2009, p. 3).  Cutting alone is ineffective. Underground tubers must be removed or plants will re-sprout.

Chemical: "Pending the results of field trials infestations...should be sprayed with 2% Roundup plus Pulse after rain when the leaves are free of dust and the plants are growing vigorously" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 19).  "Triclopyr (Garlon 4) can be used as a foliar spray"  (Englberger, 2009, p. 3).