Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell., Amaranthaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Reject, score: 14 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

English: spleen amaranth

Fijian: moca, toyala

French: bràde de Malabar, brède malabar

I-Kiribati: te moota, te mota, te uekeueke

Iloko: kauntong

Spanish: bledo, bledos malezas, pira

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Monoecious, erect annual herbs 4-9 (-15) dm tall; stems usually branched, conspicuously striate, pubescent, especially above, the hairs multicellular.  Leaves ovate to rhombic-ovate, blades 1.5-8 (-12) cm long, 0.7-5 (-8) cm wide, lower surface glabrous to sparsely pilose along the veins, petioles 0.6-5 (-8.5) cm long.  Flowers green, in axillary clusters in the lower part of the plant, in unbranched or rarely branched spikes above, the lower clusters of flowers entirely pistillate, staminate flowers only in the upper 1 cm of the spikes, rarely scattered among pistillate ones, bracts and bracteoles deltate-ovate, awn-tipped; sepals (4) 5, those of staminate flowers broadly lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, apex acuminate, only the midrib green, those of pistillate flowers oblong or spatulate-oblong, apex obtuse or sometimes acute, mucronulate; stigmas 3.  Fruit ovoid, with a short inflated neck below base of style, 1.5-1.8 mm long, dehiscent with a circumscissile lid, the lid rugulose near the line of dehiscence.  Seeds black, shiny, compressed, 1-1.2 mm long, inconspicuously reticulate"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 186).

Habitat/ecology:  "A weed of annual crops, plantations, village gardens, secondary vegetation. Cultivated as a green vegetable throughout its range." (Waterhouse & Mitchell, 1998; pp. 19-20).

In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in disturbed sites"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 186).  In Fiji, "occurring near sea level as a weed in clearings, gardens, waste places, and along roadsides" (Smith, 1981; p. 288). In Papua New Guinea, "0-1300 m altitude in several unspecified districts" (Waterhouse & Mitchell, 1998; pp. 19-20); "occurring as a weed in plantations, garden areas and secondary vegetation, at 0-1300 m altitude" (Womersley, 1978)..

Propagation:  "Copious quantities of seed produced" (Waterhouse & Mitchell, 1998; pp. 19-20).

Native range:  Paleotropics (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 186). Tropical America; now occasionally found in the Old World tropics as a weed (Smith, 1981; p. 288).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 69)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31690 (US)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Española Group	Española Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Alcedo, Isabela Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Darwin, Isabela Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Santiago Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 31)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 69)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 31)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 288) Voucher cited: Smith 303
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 288) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 66A, Greenwood 66
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 26-27) Voucher cited: BRY 26049
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 58-60)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Amaranthus cf. dubius Thellung. Voucher cited: J. Florence 2814 (PAP) Mauvaise herbe dans l'ombrière du jardin.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 58-60)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai Island	introduced	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 16) Voucher cited: Sachet 2002 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Toau (Tovau) Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J. (2004) (pp. 58-60)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Toau (Tovau) Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Adventice
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 186, 188)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 186, 188)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 186, 188)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2006) (p. 32) East Maui. Voucher cited: Starr, Starr, Medeiros & vonAllmen 040527-1 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 186, 188) Voucher cited: Herat & Wirawan 212 (BISH)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 8) Not seen after 1951. Voucher cited: Degener & Hatheway 21295
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Abemama Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 76) Voucher: Imada 2003-176 (BISH 697787)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 77) Voucher: Imada 2003-73 (BISH 697688)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 69)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 73) Voucher: Imada 2003-28 (BISH 697643); Imada 2003-182 (BISH 697793)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 31)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak, Eniwetok) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 69)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak, Eniwetok) Atoll	introduced invasive	St. John, Harold (1960) (p. 325) Voucher cited: St. John 23702
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak, Eniwetok) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 9) Voucher cited: Fosberg 24390 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 69)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 69)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 31) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 26503, Fosberg 31178, Herbst 8951. Not seen on this survey and may no longer be present.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 9) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31178 (US), Fosberg 31185 (US), Fosberg 26503 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 69)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 61)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (pp. 84-85) Vouchers cited: Thaman & Manner 22309 (SUVA), Thaman & Manner 22312 (SUVA)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 11) Vouchers cited: MacKee 12165, MacKee 33708
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 100)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 96)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 96)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 19-20)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Womersley, John S., ed. (1978) (p. 24)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 19-20)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced invasive	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 54)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1959) (p. 12) Voucher cited: Fosberg 34938
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 8) Voucher cited: Sachet 887 (US)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 9) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 34452 (US), Fosberg 34938 (US)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 18-19)
Indonesia Indonesia	West Papua Province (Indonesia) (western New Guinea Island) (formerly Irian Jaya)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 19-20)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 18-19)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 103)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		McIntyre, Guy (1991) (p. 11)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Coetivy Island		Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 146) Voucher cited: Robertson 1096 (K)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Cousin Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 24) Voucher cited: Fosberg 52034 (US)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Desnoeufs Island		Wilson, J. R. (1983) (p. 207)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Frégate Island		Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. (1983) (p. 44) Voucher cited: Todd 15
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Marie-Louise Island		Wilson, J. R. (1983) (p. 188)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Platte Island		Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 159) Voucher cited: Robertson 3012 (K)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Poivre Island		Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 167) Voucher cited: Robertson 2363 (K)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Amaranthus dubius is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Amaranthus dubius as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Amaranthus dubius may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Florence, J. 2004. Flore de la Polynésie française, Vol. 2. Paris. IRE Editions, Publications Scientifiques, Collection Faune et Flore Tropicales 41. 503 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1959. Vegetation and flora of Wake Island. Atoll Research Bulletin 67. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 20 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 393. 60 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McIntyre, Guy. 1991. Weeds of sugar cane in Mauritius, their description and control. Mauritius Sugar Industry Reseach Institute. 151 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. 1983. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. 1983. List of plants collected on Platte Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. 1983. List of plants of Poivre Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. 1983. Vegetation of Frégate Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Sachet, M.-H. 1983. Botanique de l'ile de Tupai, Iles de la Societe. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 276. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 26 pp. + photos.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

St. John, Harold. 1960. Flora of Eniwetok Atoll. Pacific Science 14(4):313-336.

Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral R. 2005. A tropical garden flora: plants cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and other tropical places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 908 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. 2006. New plant records from the Hawaiian Archipelago. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2004-2005. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 87:31-43.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. 1998. Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy: weeds target list. Second edition. Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service, Miscellaneous Publication No. 6/98. 110 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Wilson, J. R. 1983. Ecology of Marie-Louise, Amirantes Islands. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Wilson, J. R. 1983. Ecology of Desnoeufs, Amirantes Islands. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Womersley, John S., ed. 1978. Handbooks of the flora of Papua New Guinea, vol. 1. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. 278 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).