Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd., Fabaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 14 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Mimosa farnesiana L.; Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: kandaroma, kandaroma

Chinese: jin he huan

English: aroma, cassie, Ellington curse, huisache, klu, mimos bush, mimosa bush, opopanax, popinac, sweet acacia

Fijian: oki, vaivai vakavotona

French: acacia jaune, cassie ancienne, cassie jaune, mimosa de Farnése, zépinard

Hawaiian: kolū

Hindi: ban baburi, khatta falli

I-Kiribati: te bakoa, te kai bakoa, te kaibakoa

Maori (Cook Islands): titima

Nauruan: debena, katin

Spanish: aromo, bayahonda, cambrón, coromo, espino blanco

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Shrub, 1.5-4 m high.  Bark smooth, brown to grey.  Branchlets brown to reddish, terete, lenticular, glabrous.  Stipules persistent, white, spinose, subulate, 4-28 mm long, glabrous.  Leaves bipinnate.  Pulvinus 1-3 mm long, glabrous.  Leaf rachis 5-55 mm long, 1-4 pairs of pinnae per leaf, hairy on grooved upper surface, jugary glands present, interjugary glands absent; pinnae 6-32 mm long, 5-14 pairs of leaflets per pinna; leaflets linear-oblong, flat, 5.5-10 mm long, 2-3.2 mm wide L/W 2.8-4.3, concolorous, glabrous.  Inflorescences on simple axillary peduncles.  Heads globular, yellow, 10-11 mm wide; peduncle 10-28 mm long, hairy.  Pods stipitate or sessile, dark brown, paler on sutures, linear to oblong, straight or curved, cylindrical, indehiscent, 40-70 mm long, 8-12 mm wide, glabrous, longitudinally wrinkled, apiculate.  Seeds oblique in pod, olivaceous, irregularly ellipsoid, 6-9 mm long, 4.5-5.5 mm wide" (Dunlop et al., 1995).

"Erect much-branched shrub; leaves with 4-8 pairs of pinnae, pinnae with 10-12 pairs of small leaflets; stipular thorns straight and slender; flowers in pedunculate axillary heads, 1-3 heads together, subglobose; flowers yellow, fragrant; heads about 1.3 mm across; stamens numerous; pods dark brown or black, up to 8 cm long, to 12 mm broad, plump, often slightly curved; pulp within sweetish; seeds compressed, elliptic, brown"  (Stone, 1970; p. 296).

"Arbuste de 1 à 4 m de hauteur, reconnaissable à ses feuilles composées de 1 à 7 paires de pennes divisées chacune en 8 à 25 paires de petites folioles, ses grandes épines, ses inflorescences globuleuses (glomérules) de petites fleurs de couleur jaune vif, et ses gousses de 2 à 8 cm de long" (Meyer, 2008; p. 30).

Habitat/ecology:  Dry habitats between sea level and 1000 m.  "This thorny, deciduous shrub grows to 4 m in height, sometimes forming impenetrable thickets, although in most areas it forms a more open cover. Although the aerial portions may be killed by fire, it soon regenerates from basal shoots"  (C.W. Smith, 1985; p. 183). "Sweet acacia is a drought-hardy, fire-resistant species that does not tolerate frost and grows well in areas receiving between 500 and 750 mm of rainfall with a dry season of 4 to 6 months (Webb and others 1980). Its best growth occurs on well-drained soils. It tolerates heavy clays to sands and a variety of soil conditions, including saline soils, at elevations up to 2,000 m. A light-demanding species, sweet acacia often forms dense thickets on disturbed sites and is associated with numerous other shrub and tree species in secondary thorn woodlands, shrublands, and dry forests in its tropical and subtropical American range (Rzendowski 1981)"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

In Fiji, "naturalized near sea level along roadsides, in cultivated areas and pastures, and on beaches and dry river banks " (A.C. Smith, 1985; pp. 69-70).  In Hawai‘i, "formerly cultivated for an attempted perfume industry, now naturalized and common, sometimes becoming a pest, in dry, open, disturbed areas, 2-400 m (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 641).

"Elle est devenue envahissante en Australie et dans les îles du Pacifique (Hawaii, Fidji, Guam, Nouvelle-Calédonie et Polynésie française) où elle forme des fourrés très denses dans les zones sèches et littorales, les zones cultivées et les pâturages" (Meyer, 2008; p. 30). In New Caledonia, "planté jadis par des éleveurs qui l'estimaient comme fourrage de réserve utile en temps de sécheresse. Toujours commun, surtout sur la côte Ouest" (MacKee, 1994; p. 76); "naturalisé autour de Nouméa" (Balansa 315, 1868, cited in MacKee, 1994; p. 76).

Propagation:  Seeds are dispersed by ungulates which eat the pods. "Natural reproduction is abundant, particularly on disturbed sites and in active pastures where cattle readily consume the pods"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

"Ses gousses sont consommées par les animaux herbivores qui disséminent les graines" (Meyer, 2008; p. 30).

Native range:  Tropical and subtropical Americas; widely cultivated & naturalized, exact native range obscure (GRIN).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Chile (offshore islands) Rapa Nui (Easter) Island	Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua)	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2008) (pp. 30, 41)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 26) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31427 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 152464) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 82145) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 89) "Potential invader"
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 152423) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 420136) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 69-70) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 33, Greenwood 33A, Smith 4728, DA 18853, DA 9482, DA 10444, Parks 20856, DA 7896, DA 10752, Vaughan 3436, DA 14528, DA 9003
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 32801) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1976) (voucher ID: BISH 147568) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 152363) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 152433) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Eiao Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J.-C. Thibault 1042 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008) As Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 4090 (PAP), J. Florence 4401 (PAP), J. Florence 8392 (PAP) Naturalisée, menace pour la biodiversité.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491171) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 541034) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 553693) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 554566) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008) As Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: S.P. Perlman, J.-Y. Meyer, B. Kohumoetini & E. Vogt 15885 (PAP) Naturalisée. Menace pour la biodiversité.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 137) Voucher cited: Setchell & Parks 177
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 296)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 152463) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. (2002) (p. 7) Vouchers cited: Oppenheimer H109913 (BISH), Oppenheimer H109920 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Nikunau Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Thaman, Randolph R. (1992)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 31198) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 99) "Potential invader".
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 135) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58640 (US), Scully 159N (US?), Swarbrick 9568 (BRIU)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 438323) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 76) Voucher cited: Däniker 17a (Z)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 99)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Balabio	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 76) Voucher cited: MacKee 29305
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 381) Toujours commune, surtout sur la côte Ouest.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 76) Vouchers cited: Balansa 315, Schlechter 14856, A. Heim 88 (Z), MacKee 4062, MacKee 28851 Naturalisé autour de Nouvéa
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1974) (voucher ID: BISH 664511) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 11, 84)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	introduced cultivated	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 209) Used in the manufacture of perfume.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 249) In open grasslands, thickets, etc., at low and medium altitudes, especially common in regions subject to a long dry season.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 43)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 165) Dominant invader.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced invasive	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 55)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-3)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	New South Wales	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2011)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2011)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2011)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 3)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 130)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
Japan Ryukyu Islands	Ryukyu Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 37) Present status not known.
Comoros Comoro Islands	Comoro Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Naturalisé/±envahissant"
Maldives Maldive Islands	Maldive Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
Maldives Maldive Islands	Maldive Islands		Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 20) "Common in south of group, rare in north".
Maldives Maldive Islands	Malè Atoll		Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 20)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Kueffer, C./Mauremootoo, J. (2004) (pp. 7, 8)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Rodrigues Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)
French Territory of Mayotte Mayotte Islands	Mayotte Island	introduced invasive	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2010)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Agalega Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. (1983) (p. 123)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2011)

Comments:  An invasive species in Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu (Waterhouse, 1997). Reported by Waterhouse (1997) to be present in Niue but not seen there.

Control:  "La lutte manuelle par arrachage des plantules et coupe des arbustes associée à une lutte chimique par traitement des souches avec un herbicide (à base de triclopyr et/ou dicamba) sont réalisables" (Meyer, 2008; p. 30).

Physical: "Destroyed by cultivation and grubbing." (Swarbrick, 1997)

Chemical: "Probably susceptible to: 1) translocated herbicides, including picloram, metsulfuorn-methyl, glyphosate and triclopyr, and possibly 2,4-D applied to the foliage, freshly cut stumps or by stem injection at standard rates; 2) residual herbicides, including tebuthiuron and hexazinone" (Swarbrick, 1997).

"Sensitive to foliar applications of triclopyr at 1 lb/acre and metsulfuron at 0.45 oz/a and to basal bark applications of 2,4-D or triclopyr at 2% in diesel. Drizzle applications were not effective in foliar and basal bark trials at Kihei, Maui, but these trials were confounded by a severe drought" (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:
Excerpt from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Fact sheet and identification guide from the Government of Queensland, Australia (PDF format).
Fact sheet from "Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions" (PDF format).
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
Information from the Global Invasive Species Database.
Information from the USDA Tropical Tree Seed Manual (PDF Format).
Information from the ASEAN Tropical Plant Database.

Additional online information about Acacia farnesiana is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Acacia farnesiana as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Acacia farnesiana may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Australian Biological Resources Study. 2011. Flora of Australia Online. Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 31198 (Adair, F. 228).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 152463 (Thompson, J.B. 216).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 152363 (Parks, H.E. 20856).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 152423 (Wilder, G.P. 935).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 152433 (Smith, A.C. 4728).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 152464 (Fosberg, F.R. 31275).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1956. Voucher specimen #BISH 32801 (Koroiveibau, D. 10444).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 82145 (Stoddart, D.R. 2304).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1974. Voucher specimen #BISH 664511 (McKee, H.S. 28851).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1976. Voucher specimen #BISH 147568 (Vodonaivali, S. 18853).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 420136 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1555).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 438323 (Fosberg, F.R. 58640).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491171 (Florence, J. 4090).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 554566 (Florence, J. 4401).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 553693 (Florence, J. 6934).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1987. Voucher specimen #BISH 541034 (Florence, J. 8392).

Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France. 2010. Les espéces envahissantes en outre-mer (online resource).

Délégation à l'Environnement/Délégation à Recherche. 2001. Les plantes envahissantes en Polynésie Française. French Polynesia. 2 p. folder.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 58. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 37 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

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