Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd., Fabaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 14 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: kandaroma, kandaroma

English: aroma, cassie, Ellington curse, huisache, klu, opopanax, popinac, sweet acacia

Fijian: oki, vaivai vakavotona

French: acacia jaune, cassie ancienne, zépinard

Hawaiian: kolū

Hindi: ban baburi, khatta falli

I-Kiribati: te aketia, te bakoa, te kaibakoa

Maori (Cook Islands): titima

Nauruan: debena, katin

Spanish: aromo, bayahonda, coromo, espino blanco

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Shrub, 1.5-4 m high.  Bark smooth, brown to grey.  Branchlets brown to reddish, terete, lenticular, glabrous.  Stipules persistent, white, spinose, subulate, 4-28 mm long, glabrous.  Leaves bipinnate.  Pulvinus 1-3 mm long, glabrous.  Leaf rachis 5-55 mm long, 1-4 pairs of pinnae per leaf, hairy on grooved upper surface, jugary glands present, interjugary glands absent; pinnae 6-32 mm long, 5-14 pairs of leaflets per pinna; leaflets linear-oblong, flat, 5.5-10 mm long, 2-3.2 mm wide L/W 2.8-4.3, concolorous, glabrous.  Inflorescences on simple axillary peduncles.  Heads globular, yellow, 10-11 mm wide; peduncle 10-28 mm long, hairy.  Pods stipitate or sessile, dark brown, paler on sutures, linear to oblong, straight or curved, cylindrical, indehiscent, 40-70 mm long, 8-12 mm wide, glabrous, longitudinally wrinkled, apiculate.  Seeds oblique in pod, olivaceous, irregularly ellipsoid, 6-9 mm long, 4.5-5.5 mm wide" (Dunlop et al., 1995).

"Erect much-branched shrub; leaves with 4-8 pairs of pinnae, pinnae with 10-12 pairs of small leaflets; stipular thorns straight and slender; flowers in pedunculate axillary heads, 1-3 heads together, subglobose; flowers yellow, fragrant; heads about 1.3 mm across; stamens numerous; pods dark brown or black, up to 8 cm long, to 12 mm broad, plump, often slightly curved; pulp within sweetish; seeds compressed, elliptic, brown"  (Stone, 1970; p. 296).

Habitat/ecology:  Dry habitats between sea level and 1000 m.  "This thorny, deciduous shrub grows to 4 m in height, sometimes forming impenetrable thickets, although in most areas it forms a more open cover. Although the aerial portions may be killed by fire, it soon regenerates from basal shoots"  (C.W. Smith, 1985; p. 183). In Fiji, "naturalized near sea level along roadsides, in cultivated areas and pastures, and on beaches and dry river banks " (A.C. Smith, 1985; pp. 69-70).  In Hawai‘i, "formerly cultivated for an attempted perfume industry, now naturalized and common, sometimes becoming a pest, in dry, open, disturbed areas, 2-400 m (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 641). In New Caledonia, "planté jadis par des éleveurs qui l'estimaient comme fourrage de réserve utile en temps de sécheresse. Toujours commun, surtout sur la côte Ouest" (MacKee, 1994; p. 76); "naturalisé autour de Nouméa" (Balansa 315, 1868, cited in MacKee, 1994; p. 76).

Propagation:  Seeds are dispersed by ungulates which eat the pods.

Native range:  Tropical America.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 26) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31427 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 152464) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 82145) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 152423) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 420136) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 69-70) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 33, Greenwood 33A, Smith 4728, DA 18853, DA 9482, DA 10444, Parks 20856, DA 7896, DA 10752, Vaughan 3436, DA 14528, DA 9003
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 32801) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1976) (voucher ID: BISH 147568) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 152363) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 152433) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Marquesas Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 93) Dry habitats
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491171) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 541034) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 553693) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 554566) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 137) Voucher cited: Setchell & Parks 177
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 296)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 152463) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. (2002) (p. 7) Vouchers cited: Oppenheimer H109913 (BISH), Oppenheimer H109920 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Nikunau Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Thaman, Randolph R. (1992)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 31198) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 90)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 99) "Potential invader"
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 135) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58640 (US), Scully 159N (US?), Swarbrick 9568 (BRIU)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 438323) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 76) Voucher cited: Däniker 17a (Z)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 99)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Balabio	introduced	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 76) Voucher cited: MacKee 29305
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 381) Toujours commune, surtout sur la côte Ouest.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 76) Vouchers cited: Balansa 315, Schlechter 14856, A. Heim 88 (Z), MacKee 4062, MacKee 28851 Naturalisé autour de Nouvéa
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1974) (voucher ID: BISH 664511) Taxon name on voucher: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 11, 84)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 43)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced invasive	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 55)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 641)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 88)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	New South Wales	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2007)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2007)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2007)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 3)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Japan Ryukyu Islands	Ryukyu Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 37) Present status not known.
Comoros Comoro Islands	Comoro Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Naturalisé/±envahissant"
Maldives Maldive Islands	Maldive Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Rodrigues Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)

Comments:  An invasive species in Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu (Waterhouse, 1997). Reported by Waterhouse (1997) to be present in Niue but not seen there.

Control: 

Physical: "Destroyed by cultivation and grubbing." (Swarbrick, 1997)

Chemical: "Probably susceptible to: 1) translocated herbicides, including picloram, metsulfuorn-methyl, glyphosate and triclopyr, and possibly 2,4-D applied to the foliage, freshly cut stumps or by stem injection at standard rates; 2) residual herbicides, including tebuthiuron and hexazinone." (Swarbrick, 1997)

"Sensitive to foliar applications of triclopyr at 1 lb/acre and metsulfuron at 0.45 oz/a and to basal bark applications of 2,4-D or triclopyr at 2% in diesel. Drizzle applications were not effective in foliar and basal bark trials at Kihei, Maui, but these trials were confounded by a severe drought." (Motooka et al., 2003)

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Fact sheet from the Department of Natural Resources, Queensland, Australia. (PDF format)
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.

Additional online information about Acacia farnesiana is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Acacia farnesiana may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Australian Biological Resources Study. 2007. Flora of Australia Online. Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 31198 (Adair, F. 228).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 152463 (Thompson, J.B. 216).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 152363 (Parks, H.E. 20856).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 152423 (Wilder, G.P. 935).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 152433 (Smith, A.C. 4728).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 152464 (Fosberg, F.R. 31275).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1956. Voucher specimen #BISH 32801 (Koroiveibau, D. 10444).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 82145 (Stoddart, D.R. 2304).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1974. Voucher specimen #BISH 664511 (McKee, H.S. 28851).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1976. Voucher specimen #BISH 147568 (Vodonaivali, S. 18853).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 420136 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1555).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 438323 (Fosberg, F.R. 58640).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491171 (Florence, J. 4090).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 554566 (Florence, J. 4401).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 553693 (Florence, J. 6934).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1987. Voucher specimen #BISH 541034 (Florence, J. 8392).

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre. 2005. International Legume Database & Information Service. Online searchable database.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. 2002. New plant records from the main Hawaiian Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 69:1-14.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

Smith, Clifford W. 1985. Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai‘i's Native Biota. In: Stone, Charles P. and Scott, J. Michael, eds. Hawai‘i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and Management. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Manoa.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

Thaman, R. R./Tuiwawa, M. 1999. Invasive, potentially invasive and adventive alien plant species of Fiji: a preliminary analysis of their status and measures required for their control. Preliminary draft discussion paper prepared for the SPREP Regional Invasive Species Strategy for the South Pacific Islands Region: Regional Workshop, Nadi, Fiji, 26 September-1 October 1999.

Thaman, Randolph R. 1992. Vegetation of Nauru and the Gilbert Islands: Case studies of poverty, degradation, disturbance, and displacement. Pac. Sci. 46(2):128-158.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1997. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture and plantation forestry in the Southern and Western Pacific. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 93 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.