Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR) Biocontrol target species & their biocontrol agents in Hawaii


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Selected biocontrol target species in Hawaii and the current status of each of one or more selected biocontrol agents released or considered for release for each target in Hawaii are presented here, along with links to supporting references. (For now, the scope of this site is limited to selected plant biocontrol targets; information about biocontrol of other organisms [e.g., insects] is not currently included here, and only selected plant targets are covered.) For further information, contact webmaster@hear.org.
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Target: Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae)

  Agent: Entyloma compositarum (Entylomataceae)
    Status: No quantitative evaluations are available, but this fungus is considered effective against "Maui pamakani" (Ageratina adenophora). Fungal infestation of plants during wet periods coupled with the impact of previously introduced insects has resulted in other plants invading monotypic stands and in some cases replacing them.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Ageratina riparia (Asteraceae)

  Agent: Cercospora sp. (Mycosphaerellaceae)
    Status: (no status currently available; inquire)
      (no references currently available; for more info, contact webmaster@hear.org)

  Agent: Entyloma sp. (Entylomataceae)
    Status: Entyloma sp. (previously called Cercosporella sp. by some sources) was collected in Jamaica in 1974 and released on the Big Island of Hawaii in 1975 to control Ageratina riparia (the so-called "Hamakua pamakani"). By 1976 this pathogenic foliar fungus had become widely distributed, and has been highly effective in reducing or eliminating Ageratina riparia populations in elevations between 2000 to 3500 feet on the Big Island. In wetter areas, Ageratina riparia resprouted, but seedlings were subsequently shaded out.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Oidaematophorus beneficus (Pterophoridae)
    Status: Oidaematophorus beneficus, a plume moth, was brought from Mexico and released in 1973 on a Kona ranch for control of Ageratina riparia (the so-called "Hamakua pamakani"). The moth was later released in Volcano and other areas of the Big Island. By 1975 the moth was well established, and--along with other biocontrol organisms--had significantly reduced Ageratina riparia infestations on the Big Island.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Procecidochares alani (Tephritidae)
    Status: Procecidochares alani, a stem-galling fly, was collected at 2000 foot elevation in Mexico in 1973 as a potential biocontrol of Ageratina riparia (the so-called "Hamakua pamakani"). It was released in Kona in 1974 at the 3400 foot elevation, and later at other locations on Hawaii's Big Island. By 1975, populations of the fly had built up, and--along with other biocontrol agents--had effectively decreased Ageratina riparia stands in many areas of Hawaii Island.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae)

  Agent: Antiblemma acclinalis (Noctuoidea)
    Status: Antiblemma acclinalis was released in 1995 on Oahu and Kauai. It has been found since on Oahu, but has not been collected there recently [as of 2009] (perhaps because of the many natural enemies of lepidopterans present in Hawaii). No recovery effort has been made on Kauai.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Ategumia matutinalis (Pyralidae)
    Status: Ategumia matutinalis, a pyralid leaf roller, was collected from the melastomes Heterotrichum cymosum in Puerto Rico and Clidemia hirta in Trinidad, West Indies. It was released in Hawaii in 1969 to control Clidemia hirta. Parasitism of the leaf roller's larvae by four species of hymenopterans may account for low field populations, suggesting that biotic interference limits the effectiveness of this biocontrol agent.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Carposina bullata (Carposinidae)
    Status: Very small numbers of Carposina bullata were released in two sites on Oahu in 1995 and 1998, and 129 adult moths were release in the lower Puna district on the Big island between 1998 and 2000. The species was recovered once in 2002 in Puna, but has not been found since. Its status remains uncertain.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.s. clidemiae (Phyllachoraceae)
    Status: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.s. clidemiae has proven to be an effective control agent under conditions of high humidity, similar to zones infested by the target species (Clidemia hirta) in Hawaii. It has established on all the [main?] Hawaiian Islands except Lanai.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Eurytoma sp. "black" (Eurytomidae)
    Status: Testing of Eurytoma sp. "black" by Burkhart (1986, 1988) "found [it] to be of no value" for biocontrol of Clidemia hirta.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Liothrips urichi (Phlaeothripidae)
    Status: Liothrips urichi is established in Hawaii as a biocontrol agent for Clidemia hirta. However, it is not as effective as it otherwise might have been due because of predation of the agent by other insects.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Lius poseidon (Buprestidae)
    Status: Lius poseidon was released on Oahu and Kauai in 1988, and has since been released on Maui, Molokai, and the Big Island.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Mompha trithalama (Momphidae)
    Status: Mompha trithalama, introduced to Hawaii in 1995 as a biocontrol agent for Clidemia hirta, appears to be established on both Oahu and Hawaii. [ detailed status info ]
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Coccinia grandis (Cucurbitaceae)

  Agent: Acythopeus burkhartorum (Curculionidae)
    Status: "While this species is not capable of killing ivy gourd, the galls are an energy sink and may slow down growth of young vines. It was first released in August 1999 in Waimanalo on the island of Oahu and in December 1999 in Kailua-Kona on the island of Hawaii." (Chun); "establishment of A. burkhartorum on Oahu is marginal, apparently restricted largely to sites in heavy shade, and the single release of this species on Hawaii evidently has failed to establish a viable population." [ detailed status info ]
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Acythopeus cocciniae (Curculionidae)
    Status: "Combined damage from larval and adult feeding can be quite severe. Acythopeus cocciniae was first released on Oahu in November 1999 and in Kona one month later. It has been recovered at all release sites on both islands."
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Melittia oedipus (Sesiidae)
    Status: "Melittia oedipus was first released on the slopes of Punchbowl, Oahu, in August 1966. From that date to August 1999, approximately 21,600 adults and 16,000 larvae were released on Oahu. The moth is now well established and vines have thinned out substantially."
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Darna pallivitta (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

  Agent: Aroplectrus dimerus ((insect))
    Status: The Hawaii Department of Agriculture proposed the introduction of the parasitic wasp Aroplectrus dimerus from Taiwan as a biological control agent of the nettle caterpillar after host range and specificity tests were completed. The wasp has been in colonization at the HDOA Insect Containment Facility. A draft environmental assessment was prepared in 2007 and has been submitted for approval by state and federal agencies.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Hedychium gardnerianum (Zingiberaceae)

  Agent: Ralstonia solanacearum (Ralstoniaceae)
    Status: Use of the bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum against kahili ginger is limited to local application for experimental use. EPA approval may be required before the fungus can be broadcast as a biocide. The fact that the pathogen also affects edible ginger needs to be considered.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)

  Agent: Hypena laceratalis (Noctuidae)
    Status: The lepidopteran Hypena laceratalis--native to Australia, South Africa, and Asia--was originally released in Hawaii in 1957. The larvae of this moth affect leaves of lantana (Lantana camara), and is highly damaging to this species. Effective control of lantana in Hawaii by this agent declined by 1969, possibly due to unfavorable weather conditions or parasitism. This species is parasitized by various Hymenoptera in Hawaii and other areas.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Neogalea sunia (Noctuidae)
    Status: Neogalea sunia was originally introduced to Hawaii in 1955 from Mexico. It affects the leaves of lantana (Lantana camara), and overall is highly damaging to the plant. This species is parasitized by various Hymenoptera in Hawaii and other areas.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Plagiohammis spinipennis (Cerambycidae)
    Status: The beetle Plagiohammis spinipennis was introduced to Hawaii from 1954 to 1960. It affects the stems of lantana (Lantana camara), and highly damaging to the plant. An unidentified fungus associated with the lantana on which P. spinipennis became established rendered the stem soft and spongy, and may have facilitated establishment of the agent in Hawaii. Severe damage to lantana caused by this agent was reported in Pahala, Hawaii, in 1969. Host specificity trials indicated this agent could feed on teak, sesame, and species in three other families. (IMPORTANT NOTE: because of this wide host range, a Hawaii Department of Agriculture official stated that by today's [2009] standards "we would not release it into Hawaii.")
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Salbia haemorrhoidalis (Pyralidae)
    Status: Salbia haemorrhoidalis was originally released in Hawaii in 1956. This moth affects the flowers of lantana (Lantana camara) and is highly damaging to the plant. Effective control of lantana in Hawaii by the moth declined by 1969, possibly due to unfavorable weather conditions or parasitism. This species was difficult to rear in captivity.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Teleonemia scrupulosa (Tingidae)
    Status: Teleonemia scrupulosa was introduced to Hawaii in 1902 and 1952. It is highly damaging to the leaves of lantana (Lantana camara). Its effectiveness may be reduced by its preference for certain cultivars. Host specificity trials indicated the T. scrupulosa could feed on teak, sesame, and species in three other families. (IMPORTANT NOTE: a Hawaii Department of Agriculture official stated that by today's [2009] standards "we would not release [a species with this wide host range] into Hawaii.")
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Uroplata girardi (Chrysomelidae)
    Status: Uroplata girardi was introduced to Hawaii in 1961. It affects the leaves of lantana (Lantana camara) and has been reported as highly damaging to lantana in Hawaii and on other Pacific islands. This agent occasionally feeds on mint. (IMPORTANT NOTE: Because of lack of host specificity, this species might not have been introduced to Hawaii using today's [2009] standards.)
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

  Agent: Heteropsylla cubana (Thripidae)
    Status: Heteropsylla cubana, the leucaena psyllid was discovered in Hawaii in 1984. This psyllid was causing extensive defoliation of Leucaena leucocephala. Ranchers who relied on leucaena as fodder in marginal lands were concerned, and the Hawaii Department of Agriculture initiated a search for natural enemies of the psyllid in Trinidad and Tobago. Conservationists who considered leucaena a pest initially objected to efforts to control the psyllid, but as leucaena stands opened up, broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus) invaded the understory. Broomsedge provided fuel for more intense and extensive wildfires which threatened remaining pockets of native vegetation in lowland mesic areas. Eventually, opposition to control of the leucaena psyllid weakened, and Psyllaephagus yaseeni, a nymphal parasite of the psyllid, was released in Hawaii in 1987 and 1988.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Miconia calvescens (Melastomataceae)

  Agent: Coccodiella miconiae (Phyllachoraceae)
    Status: The fungal pathogen Coccodiella miconiae, a potential biological control agent for Miconia calvescens (miconia), was established on miconia in the Hawaii Department of Agriculture quarantine greenhouse in 2007. This obligate parasite was hand-carried from Costa Rica in 2006 after numerous failed attempts to culture the fungus in Hawaii. It causes pimpling of miconia leaves, significantly reducing the foliar photosynthetic process. This fungus is effective in drier climates and may be a good biocontrol agent in areas where other control agents would not be effective, but it has been difficult to transfer from plant to plant. Research into the susceptibility of the miconia biotype in Hawaii, the conditions for infection and disease development, and the life cycle of the fungus are underway in Brazil (2002). In Brazil, five hyperparasitic fungi have been collected from the pimples.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Cocostroma myconae ((fungus))
    Status: Cocostroma myconae, a leaf spot fungal pathogen of Miconia calvescens, was collected in 1993 in Costa Rica and sent to Hawaii. It could not be cultured in quarantine.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. miconiae (Phyllachoraceae)
    Status: The fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. miconiae from Brazil causes leaf spots on Miconia calvescens (miconia) resulting in leaf yellowing and premature defoliation. In laboratory conditions the fungal pathogen attacked germinating miconia seeds and newly emergent seedlings. Host range testing, concluded in November 1996, showed that this fungus was restricted in pathogenicity to the genus Miconia. Based on the host specificity tests, the fungus was subsequently described as f. sp. miconiae of Colletotrichum gloeosponoides. USDA APHIS PPQ approved the release of the pathogen in 1997, and it was released on the Big Island and on Maui that year. Attempts to establish the disease on Maui have failed (2002). The fungus requires rain and wind for spore dissemination and drought conditions may have limited its spread. In 2006, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. miconiae continued to be active in the wet Onomea area of East Hawaii and may be keeping miconia plants from becoming the dominant vegetation in that locality.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Ditylenchus gallaeformis (Anguinidae)
    Status: Ditylenchus gallaeformis, a nematode, causes severe leaf distortion and galling on Miconia calvescens. It was sent to the Hawaii Department of Agriculture in 2006 and a colony was established. Host range testing is underway (2007). The organism caused incipient galls on Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse) but did not affect the native Metrosideros polymorpha (ohia).
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Euselasia bettina (Papilionoidea)
    Status: The lepidopteran Euselasia bettina is under consideration for use as a biological control agent against Miconia calvescens (2002).
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Euselasia chrysippe (Papilionoidea)
    Status: The lepidopteran Euselasia chrysippe is under consideration for use as a biological control agent against Miconia calvescens (2000).
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Pseudocercospora tamonae (Dematiaceae)
    Status: The leaf spot disease Pseudocercospora tamonae causes extensive damage on Miconia calvescens. It also attacks seedlings of some myrtaceous species and will need extensive evaluation before consideration for release (2002).
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Morella faya (Myricaceae)

  Agent: Caloptilia nr. schinella (Gracillaridae)
    Status: "Caloptilia nr. schinella (Lepidoptera, Gracillaridae) from the Azores and Madeira was released in Hawaii in 1991. It is established but has had no demonstrable effect. It is possible that leaf miner parasitoids are attacking this moth...."
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Eucosma smithiana (Tortricidae)
    Status: Eucosma smithiana (Lepidoptera, Tortricidaae) was released in Hawaii in 1956. It is established on Morella cerifera but not Morella faya."* (Note: Morella was formerly known as Myrica.)
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Phyllonorycter myricae (Gracillariidae)
    Status: In 2000, Phyllonorycter myricae (Lepidoptera, Gracillaridae) was held in quarantine from Madeira as a potential biological control agent for Morella faya. The colony was considerably inbred and it was not possible to replenish the stock. Establishment of this microlepidopteran likely would be jeopardized by parasitoids already established in Hawaii, and there was little evidence that this agent would have a significant impact on its target.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Septoria hodgesii (Mycosphaerellaceae)
    Status: Septoria hodgesii, a potential biological control agent for Morella faya, from Morella cerifera in North Carolina was released at Volcano, Hawaii Island in 1998, but with no noticeable impact by 2000. It has been suggested that acid rain around the Volcano area inhibits spore germination, and that the fungus may be more successful if tested elsewhere.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Passiflora tarminiana (Passifloraceae)

  Agent: Cyanotrica necyria (Notoryctidae)
    Status: The leaf feeder Cyanotrica necyria (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) from Ecuador and Colombia was released in Hawaii in 1988 as a biological control agent for Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima, and became established but has had no demonstrable effect on the target species. Further work on this species is desirable because it has a high potential for completely defoliating plants.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Josia fluonia (Notoryctidae)
    Status: Josia fluonia (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), a defoliator, was recommended for release in Hawaii as a biological control agent for Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima, but release may have been reconsidered when experiments indicated it can survive on edible passionfruit (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa). The insect does not appear to have a significant impact on the target plant.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Josia ligata (Notoryctidae)
    Status: Josia ligata (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), a defoliator, was brought into quarantine as a potential biological control agent for Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima, but the colony did not survive.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Pyraustra perelegans (Pyralidae)
    Status: Pyraustras perelegans (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) feeds on leaves and buds of Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (banana poka). It was released in 1991 with little effect. It is established on the Big Island, but population levels are extremely variable. The insect may have been unable to overcome the many generalist lepidopteran parasitoids in Hawaii, or it may be susceptible to a fungus (Metschnikowia sp.).
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Septoria passiflorae (Mycosphaerellaceae)
    Status: The fungus Septoria passiflorae (Deuteromycetes, Dothidiaceae) was released in Hawaii in 1986. It had an apparently dramatic defoliating effect in Laupahoehoe (Big Island), but the cause of defoliation was not confirmed, and drought may have been a factor.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Zapriotheca nr. nudiseta (Drosophilidae)
    Status: Zapriotheca nr. nudiseta (Diptera: Drosophilidae) larvae feed on flower buds of Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (banana poka) and appear to have potential to disrupt the reproductive cycle of this plant. The fly passed host specificity testing, but was not proposed for release. The colony in quarantine was highly inbred. Further importation of the insect was needed to overcome genetic problems and complete host screening. It will be extremely difficult to assess the impact of this insect because large plants are needed, and the logistics of handling such plants in quarantine are unrealistic. Field studies in South America are not currently feasible (2000).
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Psidium cattleianum (Myrtaceae)

  Agent: Dasineura gigantea (Cecidomyiidae)
    Status: The dipteran Dasineura gigantea infests terminal and lateral buds of flushing shoots of Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava) causing the formation of bud galls, precocious developments of the bud that terminate shoot growth. This agent was considered promising because it stunts the strawberry guava trees and has a wide ecological range.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Eurytoma cattleianii (Eurytomidae)
    Status: Eurytoma cattleianii (Hymenoptera, Eurvtomidae) from Brazil was under consideration as a potential biological control agent for Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava). It attacks emerging shoots producing a gall at the base of the shoot. At the end of the growing season the shoot distal to the gall dies, terminating growth of that branch and stunting the plant. The species is confined to the higher elevations (800-1,100 m) of Parana State, Brazil. Its potential as a biocontrol may be limited because researchers have not been able to culture the insect in controlled conditions, and coordinating the availability of insects with plants with flushing shoots at the proper stage of development would be difficult.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Eurytoma desantisi (Eurytomidae)
    Status: Eurytoma desantisi (Hymenoptera, Eurvtomidae) causes galls at the base of shoots of strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), inhibiting the development of flower buds and eventually causing death to the shoots. The insect is found in Parana State (800-1100m), Brazil, and has been considered as a biocontrol agent for strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum). Difficulties raising the insect in controlled conditions may limit its potential as a biological control agent. Eurytoma desantisi is species-specific. It attacks the yellow and red fruited forms of strawberry guava, with preference for the red form. The insect's adaptation for higher elevations may be advantageous since Psidium cattleianum has been especially invasive in the higher elevations in Hawaii.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Eurytoma psidii (Eurytomidae)
    Status: Eurytoma psidii (Hymenoptera, Eurytomidae) from Brazil has been studied as a potential biocontrol for strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) in Hawaii. The insect deposits eggs in strawberry guava's flower buds and its larvae form galls within the seeds as fruit develop, resulting in fruits with a lumpy, blotched appearance. Seeds within the galled fruit do not germinate. The insect will attack strawberry guava throughout its ecological range, but only 10-50% of the fruit are attacked. Raising the insect in quarantine then coordinating its release with guava flowering would be problematic.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Haplostegus epimelas (Pergidae)
    Status: Haplostegus epimelas (Hymenoptera, Pergidae) is a sawfly from Brazil that was considered as a biocontrol for strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum). The sawfly lays its eggs on the strawberry guava's leaves. Fungal infection that occurs as a consequence of oviposition and the presence of young nymphs kill young shoots. Later instars of the fly consume leaves, causing defoliation. The sawfly is no longer considered as a biocontrol agent because it also attacks cultivated guava (Psidium guajava), although those attacks are rare.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Lamprosoma azureum (Chrysomelidae)
    Status: Lamprosoma azureum (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) was studied as a potential biocontrol of strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum). The larvae and adults feed on the bark of young plants, often girdling and stunting the plant and leaving it susceptible to pathogens. This chrysomelid is confined to the upper elevations above 650m. This insect is no longer under consideration as a biocontrol for strawberry guava because it is not host specific, but attacks other Myrtaceae including Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora) and commercial guava (Psidium guajava).
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Neotriza tavaresi (Psyllidae)
    Status: Neotrioza tavaresi (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) from Brazil is found throughout the range of strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum). This insect causes leaf galls on strawberry guava and was historically considered as a potential biocontrol agent for that species. The insect is no longer under consideration because the damage it causes is not generally sufficient to cause premature leaf drop or reduction in plant growth or flowering.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Tectococcus ovatus (Eriococcidae)
    Status: Tectococcus ovatus (Homoptera, Eriococcidae) has been deemed the most promising of the biocontrol agents considered for the control of strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum). The insect is host specific, causing galls on leaves and causing leaves to age prematurely, and decreasing vigor and flowering on infected plants. It is also easy to culture and handle and can produce multiple generations per year. In 2005, after 15 years of research in Hawaii and Brazil, researchers with the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (IPIF) petitioned for field release of the scale insect for control of strawberry guava. Although the conclusions of extensive scientific research on the issue indicate that Tectcoccus ovatus would be a useful, safe biological control orgamism for strawberry guava, a resolution by Hawaii County Council (2009) based on public concern has effectively stalled the release of Tectococcus ovatus. [ detailed status info ]
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Rubus argutus (Rosaceae)

  Agent: Schreckensteinia festaliella (Schreckensteiniidae)
    Status: Schreckensteinia festaliella (Lepidoptera, Heliodinidae) was collected and introduced to Kauai from California in 1963 to control invasive blackberry (Rubus argutus). Effects of this blackberry "skeletonizer" were noted in Kokee, Kauai at 4000 ft. elevation by 1964. It was released on Hawaii Island at Kahuku Ranch in Kau in 1966. The agent has been effective even though its eggs and larvae are frequently parasitized. The native Hawaiian raspberry, akala (Rubus hawaiensis), is an inadvertent, non-target host plant of Schreckensteinia festaliella. (For this reason--based on feedback from the Hawaii Department of Agriculture on similar issues--HEAR staff surmises that this agent would NOT have been approved under today's biocontrol release standards.)
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Schinus terebinthifolius (Anacardiaceae)

  Agent: Crasimorpha infuscata (Gelechiidae)
    Status: Crasimorpha infuscate (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae), a stem-galling moth, was introduced to Hawaii from Brazil in 1961-1962 to control Christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius). Apparently, the moth did not become established.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Episimus utilis (Olethreutidae)
    Status: Episimus utilis (Lepidoptera, Olethreutidae), a leaf rolling moth from Brazil, was released in Hawaii from 1954 to 1956 to control Christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius). The moth became established, but reportedly causes only minor damage to its host.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Heteroperreyia hubrichi (Pergidae)
    Status: Heteroperreyia hubrichi (Hymenoptera, Pergidae), a foliage feeding sawfly from Brazil, has been studied in quarantine for its suitability as a biocontrol agent for Christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius). Host specificity of the sawfly was evaluated using 20 species from 10 plant families. The sawfly laid eggs on the native Hawaiian tree Rhus sandwicensis, but only 1% of larvae developed, compared to 70% development on the target species. Risk to all other test species was considered negligible. Because of the potential risk to Rhus sandwicensis, no request for release for the sawfly was made.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Lithraeus atronotatus (Bruchidae)
    Status: Lithraeus atronotatus (Coleoptera, Bruchidae), a seed-feeding beetle from Brazil, was introduced to Hawaii in 1960 as a biocontrol agent for Christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius). The beetle became established but reportedly causes only minor damage to its host.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Megastigmus transvaalensis (Torymidae)
    Status: Megastigmus transvaalensis (Hymenoptera, Torymidae), a seed-feeding wasp, was accidently introduced to Hawaii from South Africa. It has been attacking seeds of Christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius) since the 1970s.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Senecio madagascariensis (Asteraceae)

  Agent: Puccinia lagenophorae (Pucciniaceae)
    Status: Isolates of Puccinia lagenophorae (Basidiomycetes: Uredinales), a fungal pathogen which causes rust disease, were introduced to Hawaii from Australia, South Africa, and Madagascar in 1999 to control fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis) . The rust severely affects its target host; however, it has also been shown to affect other members of the Asteraceae. Of 48 species tested, two Hawaiian endemic species (Tetramolopium filiforme and Tetramolopium rockii) and three non-native species were susceptible to infection by the rust.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Secusio extensa (Arctiidae)
    Status: Secusio extensa (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), or Madagascar moth, a voracious defoliator of fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis), was collected in Africa by the Hawaii Department of Agriculture. Tests in quarantine indicate it is a promising biocontrol agent. The moth is highly host-specific, and larvae showed a preference for fireweed when evaluated on more than 70 endemic and naturalized species of Asteraceae. Applications have been submitted to state and federal agencies for release of the Madagascar moth to control fireweed. Approvals are pending (as of 2008).
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Sipha flava (Aphididae)

  Agent: Lysiphlebus ambiguus (Aphididae)
    Status: The aphidiid wasp Lysiphlebus ambiguus was collected in Spain and France in 1990 as a potential biological control agent for the aphid Sipha flava. After completion of host specificity tests, the parasitoid was approved for release in Hawaii in 1991. The first release of L. ambiguus was in North Kona (Big Island), followed by releases on Maui, Oahu, and Kauai. Insectary propagation ceased after 1995. Despite the release of large numbers of L. ambiguus throughout the state, very few parasitized aphids have been found in the field, and the wasp's establishment is still in doubt.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Sipha maidis (Aphididae)

  Agent: Lysiphlebus ambiguus (Aphididae)
    Status: Lysiphlebus ambiguus, an aphidiid wasp, was originally introduced to Hawaii from southwestern Europe in 1990 to control the yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava). More than 300,000 wasps were released over a four year period, but the wasp did not become established. In 1997, another strain of the wasp that parasitized Sipha maidis, a close relative of the sugarcane aphid, was obtained from Pakistan and subsequently released. This new strain quickly became established, but its effect on the sugar cane aphid has not been determined.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Tibouchina herbacea (Melastomataceae)

  Agent: Syphrea uberabensis (Chrysomelidae)
    Status: Syphrea uberabensis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is under consideration as a biological control agent for Tibouchina herbacea. The insect skeletonizes leaves of this species and those of closely related species in Brazil. Its effects are being studied.
      [ REFERENCES ]


Target: Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae)

  Agent: Agonopterix ulicetella (Oecophoridae)
    Status: Agonopterix ulicetella (Lepidoptera, Oecophoridae) was released in Hawaii in 1988 as a biological control of gorse, Ulex europaeus. The insect was obtained from New Zealand in 1985, where it was already in quarantine as a potential biocontrol agent. Agonopterix ulicetella larvae feed on the green foliage of gorse, and the insect was well established by 1989.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Anisoplaca ptyoptera (Gelechiidae)
    Status: Anisoplaca ptyoptera is a pyralid moth indigenous to New Zealand where it bores into the stems of gorse, Ulex europaeus. It was considered as a biocontrol for gorse in Hawaii, but not released.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Apion scutellare (Curculionidae)
    Status: The stem-galling weevil Apion scutellare was released in Hawaii in 1989 as a biocontrol for gorse (Ulex europaeus), but it did not become established.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Apion ulicis (Curculionidae)
    Status: Apion ulicis, a weevil which attacks gorse seeds in pods, was released in 1984 as a biocontrol for gorse (Ulex europaeus) on Hawaii Island. It had previously been released on Maui where it became established. The weevil attacked up to 78% of gorse pods, but did not noticeably affect the spread of gorse.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Chlorophorus trifasciatus (Cerambycidae)
    Status: Chlorophorus trifasclatus, a root-feeding beetle from Portugal, was considered as a biological control agent for gorse (Ulex europaeus) in Hawaii, but was not tested.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Cydia lathyrana (Lepidoptera)
    Status: Cydia lathyrana, a root moth from England, was considered as a biological control agent for gorse (Ulex europaeus) in Hawaii, but was not tested.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Dictyonota strichnocera (Tingidae)
    Status: Dictyonota strichnocera, the gorse lacebug from Britain, was considered as a possible biological control agent for gorse (Ulex europaeus) in Hawaii. The insect was studied but not released.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Pempelia genistella (Pyralidae)
    Status: Pempelia genistella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae), a foliage-feeding moth, was released in large numbers in Hawaii in 1996 for biological control of gorse (Ulex europaeus). The moth is considered to be provisionally established, but it has not had a significant role in controlling gorse.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Sericothrips staphylinus (Thripidae)
    Status: Gorse thrips, Sericothrips staphylinus (Thysanoptera, Thripoidae), were released in Hawaii in 1990 to control gorse (Ulex europaeus). By 1992 the thrips were established and spreading.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Tetranychus lintearius (Tetranychidae)
    Status: The gorse spider mite Tetranychus lintearius (Acari, Tetranychidae) was released in 1995 to control gorse (Ulex europaeus) in Hawaii. It is well established.
      [ REFERENCES ]

  Agent: Uromyces pisi f. sp. europaei (Pucciniaceae)
    Status: Uromyces pisi f. sp. europaei (Uredinales, Puccinaceae), a rust fungus from England, was released in Hawaii in 2000 to control gorse (Ulex europaeus). The rust causes dieback of spines and branches, but there is no evidence the rust has become established. Future releases were planned (2003) with different inoculation methods or isolates of the pathogen.
      [ REFERENCES ]


The Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk (HEAR) project is currently funded by the Pacific Basin Information Node (PBIN) of the National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII) through PIERC (USGS) with support from HCSU (UH Hilo). More details are available online. Pacific Basin Information Node (PBIN)National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII)

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