Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Sterculia apetala


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Evaluate, score: 4


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Sterculia apetala (Jacq.) Karst. Family - Sterculiaceae. Common Names(s) - Panama tree. Synonym(s) - Helicteres apetala Jacq.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4+

-1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

4

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)It has a wide natural range from southern Mexico and Central America to Peru and Brazil.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

(1)It has a wide natural range from southern Mexico and Central America to Peru and Brazil.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.03

(1)Climatic amplitude (estimates): 
- Altitude range: 0 - 780 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 1800 - 3000 mm
- Rainfall regime: bimodal
- Dry season duration: 4 - 6 months

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.04

(1)It has a wide natural range from southern Mexico and Central America to Peru and Brazil.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.05

(1)It is naturalized in Jamaica and Trinidad and planted in many countries of the Caribbean.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.01

(1)It is naturalized in Jamaica and Trinidad and planted in many countries of the Caribbean. (2)Planted and naturalized in Puerto Rico. (3)Of note is a new naturalized record of Sterculia apetala (Jacq.) Karst., also in the Sterculiaceae family, from Honokohau Valley, West Maui, which was originally planted in 1937 and 1939 and is now reproducing and spreading in the areas adjacent to the plantings (Oppenheimer 2003 in press). (4)Sterculiaceae Sterculia apetala (Jacq.) Karst. Status: Naturalized Distribution: WM (Honokohau Valley)

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Liogier, A. H. 1994. Descriptive Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands: Spermatophyta. Editorial UPR. San Juan, PR. (3)http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/pdf/melochia_umbellata.pdf [Accessed 06 Mar 2009] (4)http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/result.cfm?genus=Sterculia&species=apetala&rank1=&epithet1= [Accessed 06 Mar 2009]

3.02

(1)listed as a weed in Puerto Rico [no evidence or information on negative impacts]

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/sterculia_apetala/ [Accessed 06 Mar 2009]

3.03

(1)listed as a weed in Puerto Rico [no evidence or information on negative impacts]

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/sterculia_apetala/ [Accessed 06 Mar 2009]

3.04

(1)listed as a weed in Puerto Rico [no evidence or information on negative impacts]

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/sterculia_apetala/ [Accessed 06 Mar 2009]

3.05

(1)Sterculia africana listed as a weed in Egypt…Sterculia foetida listed as a weed in Puerto Rico [no evidence of impacts of if species are being controlled]

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/scientificnames/scinames.htm [Accessed 04 Mar 2009]

4.01

(1)S. apetala is a large evergreen tree normally growing to 15-25 m high but may reach 40 m and 1 m in diameter. [No evidence]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.02

(1)No evidence

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.03

(1)No evidence

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.04

(1)Unknown, but fodder not listed as a use for S. apetala in Appenidx

(1)González-Rivas, B., M. Tigabu, K. Gerhardt, G. Castro-Marín and P. Odén. 2006. Species Composition, diversity and local uses of tropical dry deciduous and gallery forests in Nicaragua. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:1509–1527.

4.05

(1)No evidence (2)No evidence

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Robyns, A. and J. Cautrecasas. 1964. Flora of Panama. Part VI. Family 117. Sterculiaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 51, No. 1/4: 69-107.

4.06

(1)It has been reported that seed crops are associated with outbreaks of the cotton stainer bug (Desdercus fasciatus) (Janzen, 1972).Pests recorded Insects: Dysdercus fasciatus (cotton stainer) Fungus diseases: Phyllostica Pests recorded at the family level (Sterculiaceae): Insects: Planococcoides njalensis (west African cocoa mealybug) (2)Farmers in Guatemala and Honduras sometimes leave large S. apetala trees in pastures as shade for cattle. However, farmers in Costa Rica actively remove trees when these are near to cotton fields because of the cotton stainer (Dysdercus spp. ) insect problems associated with the trees and the resulting damage that the insects can in¯ict on the crops...S. apetala carries with it a long list of numerous insect problems. In addition to pod and seed insects, it is often attacked by a host of leaf miners and stem borers. For example, in this trial, the trees were attacked by a defoliator, Arohips sp.(Oletereutride) and by a stem borer Steirastroma historionica (Cerambycidae). Other researchers in Cuba and Puerto Rico also report on insect and fungal infestations on the leaves of S. apetala (Herrera-Isla, 1993; Martorell, 1940).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Dvoraka, W. S., H. Urueña, L. A. Moreno and J. Goforth. 1998. Provenance and family variation in Sterculia apetala in Colombia. Forest Ecology and Management 111: 127-135.

4.07

(1)Table 5. Representative Plants with External Irritan, Stinging Hairs, or Detachable Needles. [includes Sterculia apetala…in exposed fruit] (2)dry fruits, each of 5 or fewer spreading pods 21/2-31/2 inches long, opening widely to release the large black seeds and covered within with stiff needlelike bristles, which penetrate and irritate the skin.

(1)Lewis Nelson, Richard D. Shih, Michael J. Balick, Kenneth F Lampe. 2006. Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants. Springer. New York. (2)Little, E. L. and F. H.Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

4.08

(1)Sterculia apetala…These trees are generally old and separated from the surrounding vegetation on the wooded edge of the rivers or in isolated wooded clumps of forest. [no evidence of increased fire risk] (2)Distribution: Widespread on the Pacific half of the Canal area, not the Caribbean slope. Occurs widely in secondary forest, old-growth forest, and in residential areas. There are many large trees in Panama City, often near the ocean, and it occurs in all forests from Panama City to Barro Colorado and Soberania. But it's never particularly abundant anywhere, and juveniles are restricted to forest clearings, not seen often in open areas. [unlikely to increase fire risk due to low density]

(1)Fowler, M. E. and Zalmir S. Cubas. 2001. Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of South American Wild Animals. Iowa State University Press. Ames, Iowa. (2)http://ctfs.si.edu/webatlas/findinfo.php?specid=7888&leng=english [Accessed 05 Mar 2009] (3)Dvoraka, W. S., H. Urueña, L. A. Moreno and J. Goforth. 1998. Provenance and family variation in Sterculia apetala in Colombia. Forest Ecology and Management 111: 127-135.

4.09

(1)The large-leafed seedlings grow rapidly in full isolation, and they also can attain heights of at least 5 m in heavy shade.

(1)Janzen, D. H. 1972. Escape in Space by Sterculia Apetala Seeds from the Bug Dysdercus Fasciatus in a Costa Rican Deciduous Forest. Ecology, Vol. 53, No. 2: 350-361.

4.10

(1)It is most often found on sites below 400 m altitude and prefers well-drained alluvial soils such as sandy loams. It can not tolerate soils that are constantly saturated with water.

(1)Dvoraka, W. S., H. Urueña, L. A. Moreno and J. Goforth. 1998. Provenance and family variation in Sterculia apetala in Colombia. Forest Ecology and Management 111: 127-135.

4.11

(1)S. apetala is a large evergreen tree normally growing to 15-25 m high but may reach 40 m and 1 m in diameter. [No evidence]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.12

(1)Sterculia apetala…These trees are generally old and separated from the surrounding vegetation on the wooded edge of the rivers or in isolated wooded clumps of forest. (2)Distribution: Widespread on the Pacific half of the Canal area, not the Caribbean slope. Occurs widely in secondary forest, old-growth forest, and in residential areas. There are many large trees in Panama City, often near the ocean, and it occurs in all forests from Panama City to Barro Colorado and Soberania. But it's never particularly abundant anywhere, and juveniles are restricted to forest clearings, not seen often in open areas. (3)Even though its natural distribution is widespread, S. apetala is seldom the dominant tree species in any one area.

(1)Fowler, M. E. and Zalmir S. Cubas. 2001. Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of South American Wild Animals. Iowa State University Press. Ames, Iowa. (2)http://ctfs.si.edu/webatlas/findinfo.php?specid=7888&leng=english [Accessed 05 Mar 2009] (3)Dvoraka, W. S., H. Urueña, L. A. Moreno and J. Goforth. 1998. Provenance and family variation in Sterculia apetala in Colombia. Forest Ecology and Management 111: 127-135.

5.01

(1)S. apetala is a large evergreen tree normally growing to 15-25 m high but may reach 40 m and 1 m in diameter. [terrestrial]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.02

(1)Sterculiaceae

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.03

(1)Sterculiaceae

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.04

(1)S. apetala is a large evergreen tree normally growing to 15-25 m high but may reach 40 m and 1 m in diameter.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.02

(1)Follicles obovoid, ca. 6 cm. long and 4 cm. thick, tomentellous outside, the inner surface covered with a dense layer of erect, stiff, yellowish and ca. 2 mm. long prickly hairs, 2- to 4-seeded; seeds oblong-ellip5oid, ca. 2 cm. long and 1.1-1.3 cm. in diam., the testa brown or black, covered with stiff, little adhesive, prickly hairs.

(1)Robyns, A. and J. Cautrecasas. 1964. Flora of Panama. Part VI. Family 117. Sterculiaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 51, No. 1/4: 69-107.

6.03

(1)No evidence of hybridization in genus [fairly well-studied species]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.04

Unknown (1)The neotropical, monoecious, forest species Sterculia chicha has been shown to have flowers which are adapted for pollination by Diptera, such as medium-sized species of the sapromyo-philous genera Acroglossa, Cachliomya, Gaemnochaetopsis, Ornidia and Parasarcnphaga. Controlled pollination experiments show that the species is self-incompatible. The fact that pollen tube growth proceeds to the ovule following both compatible and incompatible pollinations suggests that the incompatibility mechanism is based on the non-fusion of gametes in the embryo sac, as in the Theohroma-type, originally known only in the related Theobroma cacao. [related species incompatible] (2)Abstract: The trees of Sterculia foetida, though morphologically andromonoecious, are functionally monoecious, for the morphologically hermaphroditic flowers are pistillate in function due to male sterility. Both flower morphs mature simultaneously and open up a possibility for geitonogamy to occur. But the pistillate flowers are compatible to autcross pollen only and discounting of pollen due to geitonogamous pollinations is compensated by many staminate flowers. Thus, the sexual system enforces total outcrossing and male sterility seems to be a resource saving strategy for investment in fruit development. [related species incompatible]

(1)Taroda, N. and P. E. Gibbs. 1981. Floral biology and breeding system of Sterculia chicha St. Hil. (Sterculiaceae). New Phytologist Volume 90 Issue 4: 735 - 743. (2)Atluri, J. B., Ramana, S. P. Venkata; Reddi, C. Subba. 2004. Sexual system and pollination of Sterculia foetida Linn. Beitraege zur Biologie der Pflanzen 73(2): 223-242.

6.05

(1)open-pollinated

(1)Dvoraka, W. S., H. Urueña, L. A. Moreno and J. Goforth. 1998. Provenance and family variation in Sterculia apetala in Colombia. Forest Ecology and Management 111: 127-135.

6.06

(1)No evidence of spread by vegetative means

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.07

(1)In the riparian forests of Costa Rica, S. apetala produces its first seed crop when 15-25 m tall and 20-30 years old.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.01

(1)Follicles obovoid, ca. 6 cm. long and 4 cm. thick, tomentellous outside, the inner surface covered with a dense layer of erect, stiff, yellowish and ca. 2 mm. long prickly hairs, 2- to 4-seeded; seeds oblong-ellip5oid, ca. 2 cm. long and 1.1-1.3 cm. in diam., the testa brown or black, covered with stiff, little adhesive, prickly hairs. [seeds very large (2 cm), would be noticed easily]

(1)Robyns, A. and J. Cautrecasas. 1964. Flora of Panama. Part VI. Family 117. Sterculiaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 51, No. 1/4: 69-107.

7.02

(1)Land use, environmental and service aspects Descriptors: amenity; ornamental Products 1. Wood Descriptors: containers; crates; cases; woodware; industrial and domestic woodware; tool handles 2. Non-wood Descriptors: medicinal products; honey

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

(1)Follicles obovoid, ca. 6 cm. long and 4 cm. thick, tomentellous outside, the inner surface covered with a dense layer of erect, stiff, yellowish and ca. 2 mm. long prickly hairs, 2- to 4-seeded; seeds oblong-ellip5oid, ca. 2 cm. long and 1.1-1.3 cm. in diam., the testa brown or black, covered with stiff, little adhesive, prickly hairs. [no evidence, fruits and seeds fairly large and unlikely to become produce contaminant]

(1)Robyns, A. and J. Cautrecasas. 1964. Flora of Panama. Part VI. Family 117. Sterculiaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 51, No. 1/4: 69-107.

7.04

(1)Follicles obovoid, ca. 6 cm. long and 4 cm. thick, tomentellous outside, the inner surface covered with a dense layer of erect, stiff, yellowish and ca. 2 mm. long prickly hairs, 2- to 4-seeded; seeds oblong-ellip5oid, ca. 2 cm. long and 1.1-1.3 cm. in diam., the testa brown or black, covered with stiff, little adhesive, prickly hairs. [no adaptations for wind dispersal]

(1)Robyns, A. and J. Cautrecasas. 1964. Flora of Panama. Part VI. Family 117. Sterculiaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 51, No. 1/4: 69-107.

7.05

(1)Sterculia apetala…These trees are generally old and separated from the surrounding vegetation on the wooded edge of the rivers or in isolated wooded clumps of forest [distribution along river edges suggest seeds could be water dispersed, but no direct evidence of buoyancy]

(1)Fowler, M. E. and Zalmir S. Cubas. 2001. Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of South American Wild Animals. Iowa State University Press. Ames, Iowa.

7.06

(1)where they frequently appear as an emergent tree over the forest canopy. Moreover, they often contain large holes in the trunk, making them the most important nesting site for Hyacinth Macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) throughout the Pantanal. Focal observations were carried out on ten trees in the morning (06:30-12:00) and afternoon (15:00-18:00) at Fazenda Rio Negro, MS, Brazil. After 285 h of observations eight bird species were recorded feeding on manduvi fruits. Of these, only two species (Toco toucan Ramphastos toco, and Aracaris Pteroglossus aracari) were considered effective seed dispersers because they ingested seeds whole rather than destroying them. The Toco toucan was by far the most frequent visitor (79% of 523 visits) and most important as it removed the bulk of seeds (92% of 433 seeds eaten). We also focused our study on the spatial distribution of the seedlings around the adult Manduvis. We found that the distribution of the seedlings was most concentrated below the mother plant, but some seedlings were also dispersed beyond the canopy, some more than 30 meter far from the closest adult. We counted 125 seedlings around 49 adults. If a healthy population of manduvis is to be maintained, not only to keep the integrity of the Pantanal ecosystem, but also to ensure the reproduction of one of its flagship species, the Hyacinth macaw, then a healthy population of seed dispersers is essential.

(1)Donatti, C. I., M. Galetti and M. A. Pizo. 2005. THE MANDUVI, TOCO TOUCAN AND THE HYACINTH MACAW: A FRAGILE CONNECTION IN PANTANAL, BRAZIL. Poster Paper 6. Fourth International Symposium/Workshop on Frugivores and Seed Dispersal. 9 – 16 July 2005 Griffith University Brisbane, Australia.

7.07

(1)Squirrels and monkeys appear to be the primary dispersal agents; after carrying the pods away from the parent, they appear to lose some seeds because of their face and hands being stuck by the hairs on the inner walls of the pods.

(1)Janzen, D.H., 1971. Escape in space by Sterculia apetala seeds from the bug Dysdercus fasciatus in a Costa Rican deciduous rainforest. Ecology 53(2): 350-361..

7.08

(1)During the last 2 months of pod maturation, a wide variety of birds and mammals prey on the seeds which are in the "milk" stage…As the pods begin to dehisce along one side, two types of predators begin to take a heavy toll of seeds. The smaller parrots...enter the canopy at daybreak and remove the seeds from partly open pods...These birds eat 1-2-3/4 of each seed attacked; on very rare occasions a superficially intact seed is dropped. There is no evidence that these or other birds carry seeds or pods away from the tree...Deer have been observed feeding on the seeds under parent S. apetala...Since soft seeds are easily ground up by deer, presumably they cannot be dispersal agents. [certain birds and mammals act as seed predators]. (2)After 285 h of observations eight bird species were recorded feeding on manduvi fruits. Of these, only two species (Toco toucan Ramphastos toco, and Aracaris Pteroglossus aracari) were considered effective seed dispersers because they ingested seeds whole rather than destroying them. The Toco toucan was by far the most frequent visitor (79% of 523 visits) and most important as it removed the bulk of seeds (92% of 433 seeds eaten). We also focused our study on the spatial distribution of the seedlings around the adult Manduvis. We found that the distribution of the seedlings was most concentrated below the mother plant, but some seedlings were also dispersed beyond the canopy, some more than 30 meter far from the closest adult. [toucans and aracaris apparently pass intact seeds]

(1)Janzen, D.H., 1971. Escape in space by Sterculia apetala seeds from the bug Dysdercus fasciatus in a Costa Rican deciduous rainforest. Ecology 53(2): 350-361. (2)Donatti, C. I., M. Galetti and M. A. Pizo. 2005. THE MANDUVI, TOCO TOUCAN AND THE HYACINTH MACAW: A FRAGILE CONNECTION IN PANTANAL, BRAZIL. Poster Paper 6. Fourth International Symposium/Workshop on Frugivores and Seed Dispersal. 9 – 16 July 2005 Griffith University Brisbane, Australia.

8.01

(1)The first crop of pods range from 50-200, each pod having 2-5 seeds. [unlikely unless large stands of trees occur together]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.02

(1)- Seed storage orthodox [no evidence from field settings]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.03

Unknown [no evidence of control of S. apetala]

8.04

(1)When cut, mature trees do not produce coppice shoots (Lamprecht, 1955). However, trees <5 years of age have been observed to produce basal sprouts after being felled.

(1)Dvoraka, W. S., H. Urueña, L. A. Moreno and J. Goforth. 1998. Provenance and family variation in Sterculia apetala in Colombia. Forest Ecology and Management 111: 127-135.

8.05

Unknown


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