Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Stenocarpus sinuatus


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Low risk, score: -4


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Stenocarpus sinuatus (A. Cunningham) Endl. Family - Proteaceae. Common Names(s) - Firewheeltree, Wheel-of-fire. Synonym(s) - .

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

-2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4+

-1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-4

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Rainforests of north-eastern New South Wales and eastern Queensland. Also occurs in Papua New Guinea.

(1)http://asgap.org.au/s-sin.html [Accessed 02 Sep 2008]

2.02

Native range well within tropics.

 

2.03

(1)Hardiness: USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F) USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) USDA Zone 11: above 4.5 °C (40 °F) (2)Grows in Mediterranean-type climates as well as seasonally moist, humid climates. (3)Despite its sub-tropical to tropical origin, S.sinuatus is adaptable to a range of climates and will even succeed in dry climates if additional water is available.

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/58276/ [Accessed 02 Sep 2008] (2)Llamas, K. A. 2003. Tropical Flowering Plants. A Guide to Identification and Cultivation. Timber Press. Portland, OR. (3)http://asgap.org.au/s-sin.html [Accessed 02 Sep 2008]

2.04

(1)Rainforests of north-eastern New South Wales and eastern Queensland. Also occurs in Papua New Guinea.

(1)http://asgap.org.au/s-sin.html [Accessed 02 Sep 2008]

2.05

(1)It is grown in many countries and is also popular in Australia [ornamental]

(1)Jones, D.L. 1986. Ornamental Rainforest Plants in Australia. Reed Books. Australia.

3.01

(1)Cultivated ? Yes Evidence of naturalization? No (2)Stenocarpus sinuatus Endl. firewheel tree, fire tree NEW RECORD: AK 233102, P. J. de Lange 3316 & R. O. Gardner, 15 Jun 1997, Auckland, Auckland City, Ellerslie, Ellerslie Racecourse . NOTES: One seedling in leaf duff beneath parent tree. [Insufficient evidence of naturalization]

(1)Foxcroft, L.C., D. M. Richardson and J. R. U. Wilson. 2008. Ornamental Plants as Invasive Aliens: Problems and Solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management 41:32–51. (2)Heenan, P.B., P.J. de Lange, D.S. Glenny, I. Breitwieser, P.J. Brownsey and C.C. Ogle. 1999. Checklist of dicotyledons, gymnosperms, and pteridophytes naturalised or casual in New Zealand : additional records 1997-1998. New Zealand Journal of Botany 37: 629–642.

3.02

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/stenocarpus_sinuatus/ [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

3.03

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/stenocarpus_sinuatus/ [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

3.04

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/stenocarpus_sinuatus/ [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

3.05

(1)Stenocarpus cunninghamii listed as a weed but with no evidence of impacts or control measures

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/stenocarpus_cunninghamii/ [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

4.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

4.02

(1)No evidence

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

4.03

(1)No evidence

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

4.04

Unknown [no information found on palatability of foliage]

 

4.05

(1)No evidence

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

4.06

No evidence that this species is a host of economically important pests or pathogens (1)It is most adaptable and trouble free with no known problems or predators. (2)During the summer of 2006, a widespread blight was observed on 6-month-old potted plants of firewheel tree (Stenocarpus sinuatus Endl.) and 3-month-old potted plants of bay laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) growing in a nursery in eastern Sicily, Italy. On both species, symptomatic plants initially had sunken, tan lesions at ground level where white mycelia and small (1 to 2 mm in diameter), brown, spherical sclerotia typical of Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. were formed. As the disease progressed, the mycelia extended up the stem and entire plants collapsed. A sudden wilting affecting 4-month-old potted seedlings of bird of paradise (Strelitzia reginae Aiton) and 5-month-old potted seedlings of Mediterranean fan palm (Chamaerops humilis L.) was occasionally detected in other greenhouses of the same nursery. Liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha L.) was abundantly present on the surfaces of the containers where these plants were grown. Circular and crescent-shaped patches as much as 100 cm in diameter were observed on the massed liverwort plants. In these patches, the liverwort died and sclerotia typical of S. rolfsii were dispersed on white mycelial strands. Symptomatic tissues of the ornamental plants and liverwort were surface disinfested in 1% NaOCl for 1 min, rinsed in sterile water, and plated on potato dextrose agar. Tissues consistently yielded S. rolfsii (teleomorph Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough) and typical sclerotia with internally differentiated rind, cortex, and medulla were produced within 6 or 7 days (3). Pathogenicity tests were performed by placing 30 sclerotia obtained from 10-day-old cultures in the soil below the crown portion on each of 2-month-old healthy seedlings of Stenocarpus sinuatus, L. nobilis, Strelitzia reginae, and C. humilis (20 seedlings per host). In addition, liverwort growing in 10 pots (7 cm in diameter) was inoculated with 30 sclerotia per pot. For each species, the same number of plants or pots served as control. All ornamental plants and liverwort were maintained in a growth chamber at 25 ± 1°C and enclosed for 7 days in polyethylene bags and then moved to a greenhouse where temperatures ranged from 24 to 28°C. The inoculation trial was repeated once. Symptoms of southern blight developed after 5 to 20 days on all inoculated plants of Stenocarpus sinuatus and sporadically (two to five plants) after 20 days on L. nobilis, Strelitzia reginae, and C. humilis. After 5 days, liverwort in all inoculated pots was colonized and plants died within 12 days. Control plants of all species remained symptomless. S. rolfsii was reisolated from symptomatic plants. S. rolfsii was reported for the first time in Sicily in 2004 on ornamental plants (2). Strelitzia reginae was previously reported as a host of Corticium rolfsii (synonym S. rolfsii) in Portugal (1). To our knowledge, this is the first report of S. rolfsii on Stenocarpus sinuatus, L. nobilis, and C. humilis. In addition, this is the first report of the susceptibility of M. polimorpha to S. rolfsii. Liverwort could provide a food source for the fungus in container-grown nursery plants. (3)The Stenocarpus varieties were the most resistant, being attacked by very few pests and to date no diseases.

(1)Australian Plants Online. Available from http://asgap.org.au/APOL17/mar00-14.html#firewheel [Accessed 03 Sep 2008] (2)Polizzi, G., D. Aiello, I. Castello, and A. Vitale. 2007. First Report of Southern Blight on Firewheel Tree, Bay Laurel, Bird of Paradise, Mediterranean Fan Palm, and Liverwort Caused by Sclerotium rolfsii in Italy. Plant Disease 91(9): 1199. (3)Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. http://www.rirdc.gov.au/comp02/wnf2.html [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

4.07

No evidence (1)San Diego Regional Asthma Coalition Low Allergy Plant and Tree List (Note: The plants listed in this brochure have a rating of less than 4 on the OPALS scale developed by Tom Ogren, author of Allergy-Free Gardening. The OPALS scale takes into account the method of pollination, plant family, size, fragrance, length of pollination time, and other pollen factors.) [S. sinuatus included in list of plants]

(1)San Diego Regional Asthma Coalition Low Allergy Plant and Tree List. Available from http://asthmasandiego.org/pdfs/LowAllergyPlantList.pdf [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

4.08

Evidence indicates that this species will not promote fires (1)Among scores of other fire retardant rainforest trees, Stenocarpus sinuatus Firewheel Tree deserves special mention. Although occurring naturally between north-east Queensland and north-east New South Wales, it is recommended for the Sydney region due to its breathtaking beauty and because it is non-invasive. (2)S. sinuatus listed among fire retardant native Australian plants.

(1)http://www.ilda.com.au/page/fire_retardant.html [Accessed03 Sep 2008] (2)http://thebegavalley.org.au/uploads/media/Fire_Retardant_Species_List.pdf [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

4.09

(1)Sun Exposure: Full Sun

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/58276/ [Accessed 02 Sep 2008]

4.10

(1)Regular deep watering in summer, dislikes alkaline soils, needs good drainage (2)Plants have proved to be adaptable to a variety of soils but grow best in deep organic loams.

(1)http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Proteaceae/Stenocarpus_sinuatus.html [Accessed 02 Sep 2008] (2)Jones, D.L. 1986. Ornamental Rainforest Plants in Australia. Reed Books. Australia.

4.11

(1)Tree…may exceed 100 feet in height`

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

4.12

(1)No evidence

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Proteaceae

5.03

Proteaceae

5.04

(1)Tree…may exceed 100 feet in height`

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

6.02

(1)Propagation: Seed or cuttings (2)Propagation: From fresh seed. Cuttings are difficult to strike.

(1)http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Proteaceae/Stenocarpus_sinuatus.html [Accessed 02 Sep 2008] (2)Jones, D.L. 1986. Ornamental Rainforest Plants in Australia. Reed Books. Australia.

6.03

Unknown [No information on hybridization between species]

 

6.04

(1)Abstract: In three closely related genera of the Proteaceae, namely, Lomatia R.Br., Stenocarpus R.Br. and Strangea Meisn. the pollen presenter and stigma at anthesis are covered by specialised cells. The cells are spiral-walled, contain polyphenolic material and are produced from the stigma, and in Lomatia from the pollen presenter. The spiral wall-thickenings are formed on the inside of the primary wall late in the development of the cells when they are budded off from the stigma or presenter surface. Pollen from the anthers is placed onto these cells from where it is taken to other flowers for cross-pollination. The spiral-walled cells prevent contact between self-pollen and the stigma and provide a method whereby cross-pollen can only reach the stigma if self-pollen has been removed. The form of the cells and the mechanism for preventing autogamy is not found in any other plant group.

(1)Ladd, P.G., I. Nanni and G. J. Thomson. 1998. Unique Stigmatic Structure in Three Genera of Proteaceae. Australian Journal of Botany 46(4) 479 - 488. (2)http://www.laparks.org/dos/forest/pdf/stenocarpusSinuatus.pdf [Accessed 02 Sep 2008]

6.05

(1)"species such as S. sinuatus which is bird-pollinated and produces copious nectar." [floral morphology suggests birds with longer bills may be necessary for effective pollination] (2)The large bright red flowers of Stenocarpus sinuatus, the best known of the species, are clearly adapted to ornithophily and are a special advanced feature of the species and not characteristic of the group.

(1)Ladd, P.G., I. Nanni and G. J. Thomson. 1998. Unique Stigmatic Structure in Three Genera of Proteaceae. Australian Journal of Botany 46(4) 479 - 488. (2)Johnson, L.A.S. and Briggs , B.G. 1963. Evolution in the Proteaceae. Australian Journal of Botany 11(1) 21 - 61

6.06

(1)Propagation: From fresh seed. Cuttings are difficult to strike. (2)Reproduction: Exclusively by seed - but can sucker a short distance [Possibly, but spread by suckers must be >1 m from base of tree to answer yes to this question]

(1)Jones, D.L. 1986. Ornamental Rainforest Plants in Australia. Reed Books. Australia. (2)http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/exotic_plant_life_and_weeds/detail.asp?WeedID=1819 [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

6.07

(1)Slow growing for first two or three years. (2)although they grow slowly taking up to 15 years to flower, they are still commonly planted. (3)Plants grown from seed may take 7 years or more to flower.

(1)Wrigley, J.W. and M. Fagg. 1996. Australian Native Plants. Propagation, Cultivation and Use in Landscaping. Fourth Edition. Reed Books, Australia. (2)Jones, D.L. 1986. Ornamental Rainforest Plants in Australia. Reed Books. Australia. (3)http://asgap.org.au/s-sin.html [Accessed 02 Sep 2008]

7.01

(1)Fruit a follicle, narrow, with recurved pedicels; seeds with an outer membranous wing folded around the inner wing [genus description]…Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long [species description] [No means of external attachment]

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

7.02

(1)It is grown in many countries and is also popular in Australia [ornamental]

(1)Jones, D.L. 1986. Ornamental Rainforest Plants in Australia. Reed Books. Australia.

7.03

(1)Fruit a follicle, narrow, with recurved pedicels; seeds with an outer membranous wing folded around the inner wing [genus description]…Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long [species description] [No evidence, and relatively large seeds unlikely to contaminate produce]

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

7.04

(1)Dispersal : Wind dispersed and by gravity (2)Fruit a follicle, narrow, with recurved pedicels; seeds with an outer membranous wing folded around the inner wing [genus description]…Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long [species description]

(1)http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/exotic_plant_life_and_weeds/detail.asp?WeedID=1819 [Accessed 03 Sep 2008] (2)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

7.05

(1)Dispersal : Wind dispersed and by gravity (2)Fruit a follicle, narrow, with recurved pedicels; seeds with an outer membranous wing folded around the inner wing [genus description]…Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long [species description] [No indication that fruits or seeds will float]

(1)http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/exotic_plant_life_and_weeds/detail.asp?WeedID=1819 [Accessed 03 Sep 2008] (2)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

7.06

(1)Fruit a follicle, narrow, with recurved pedicels; seeds with an outer membranous wing folded around the inner wing [genus description]…Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long [species description] [Not fleshy-fruited] (2)"I vividly recall an occasion several years ago, watching a flock of parrots just above my head, as they feasted on the seed pods, while tiny honeyeaters fluttered around above them drinking nectar from the flowers." [seed predation by birds]

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia. (2)http://www.ilda.com.au/page/trees.html [Accessed 03 Sep 2008]

7.07

(1)Fruit a follicle, narrow, with recurved pedicels; seeds with an outer membranous wing folded around the inner wing [genus description]…Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long [species description] [No means of external attachment]

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

7.08

(1)Fruit a follicle, narrow, with recurved pedicels; seeds with an outer membranous wing folded around the inner wing [genus description]…Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long [species description] [Fruit and seeds unlikely to be consumed by legitimate dispersers]

(1)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

8.01

Large trees could potentially produce high seed densities, but specific information on fruits per tree and seeds per fruit was not found (1)"This tree...may exceed 100' in height" (2)Approximate seed count - 2200 per 100 grams. (3)Follicles 5-10 cm long; seeds 25 mm long

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI. (2)http://www.australianwineandbeer.com/natives/natives.htm [Accessed 03 Sep 2008] (3)Harden, G.W. 2002. Flora of New South Wales: V. 2. UNSW Press. Sydney, Australia.

8.02

Unknown [orthodox storage behavior suggests potential for seed bank formation, but reference 1 suggests viability might be limited] (1)Fresh seed is essential for good germination. (2)Storage Behaviour: Orthodox? Storage Conditions: Based on TSW, this species may show orthodox seed storage behaviour.

(1)Australian Plants Online. Available from http://asgap.org.au/APOL17/mar00-14.html#firewheel [Accessed 03 Sep 2008] (2)Liu, K., Eastwood, R.J., Flynn, S., Turner, R.M., and Stuppy, W.H. 2008. Seed Information Database (release 7.1, May 2008) http://www.kew.org/data/sid

8.03

Unknown [no information on control of this species]

 

8.04

Unknown [no information found on response to fire or mechanical damage to tree]

 

8.05

Unknown


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