Solanum capsicoides All. Family - Solanaceae. Common Names(s) - Cockroach berry. Synonym(s) - S. aculeatissimum Jacq.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

15

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Native to eastern Brazil

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.02

2.03

Tropical species with elevational range >1000 m (1)Hardiness: USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F) USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F) USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F) USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) USDA Zone 11: above 4.5 °C (40 °F) (2)Wastelands, near roadsides, open forests, thickets; 200–1500 m. Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang, also cultivated in Henan and Liaoning [native to Brazil; now a widespread weed of warm regions].

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/38381/ [Accessed 09 Oct 2008] (2)Zhi-yun, Z., L. An-ming and W. G. D'Arcy. 1994. Solanaceae. Flora of China 17: 300–332. http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/china/mss/volume17/Solanaceae.published.pdf

2.04

(1)Native to eastern Brazil

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.05

(1)now a widespread weed in tropical regions of the world

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

3.01

(1) Naturalized in disturbed areas such as pastures, pond banks, along trails and in mesic forest and diverse mesic forest, 15-850 m (2)Distribution and habitat. Queensland, New South Wales. Moreton, Wide Bay, Burnett, Cook, South Kennedy. North Coast (NC), Central Coast (CC), North-western slopes (NWS). Evergreen notophyll rainforest (no eucalypts), wet eucalypt forest with rainforest understorey, or rainforest margins. (3)Solanum capsicoides (poro‘iti taratara, cockroach berry, devil’s apple, soda apple) is reported by the Cook Islands Natural Heritage Project to be present on Rarotonga and Ma‘uke and was seen in cultivation of ‘Atiu. Although small, it is quite spiny and is not a desirable addition to the vegetation of these islands. It produces large amounts of small, tomato-like fruit that can be used in making ‘ei. Spread may be by birds, pigs or humans. This species is rapidly becoming established on Tonga. (4)Solanum capsicoides was seen at Asau on Savai‘i. Although small, it is quite spiny and would not be a desirable addition to the vegetation of Samoa. (5)Solanum capsicoides Allioni (Syn. S. ciliatum), cockroach berry, a native herb of coastal Brazil is now widely distributed as a weed in the tropical regions of the world. All parts of the plant are poisonous to livestock [21]. The Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry [20] recommends this species for control and eradication. In Galápagos, it was first recorded in 2004 as an introduced, cultivated species, in five properties the village and five farms of Isabela Island (CDRS unpublished data). In Puerto Villamil, the plant known as “naranjilla silvestre”, was often cultivated and has been reported as escaped in the neighbouring San Cristobal Island.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://delta-intkey.com/solanum/www/capsicoi.htm [Accessed 10 Oct 2008] (3)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. (4)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu.

3.02

(1)A lowland species of humid or seasonally humid warm subtropical or tropical areas nearly or quite free from frost. Throughout its now extensive range (Nee, 1979) an often abundant weed in unshaded disturbed artificial weedy habitats such as roadsides, waste places, pastures, old coffee plantations, stream banks, beaches, cultivated land (presumably the edges), open woods and around dwellings.

(1)http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=1576 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008]

3.03

Potential to become an agricultural weed, but no evidence of impacts (1)The small, spiny Solanum capsicoides is an excellent candidate for eradication. It is likely to become a problem for agriculture if it becomes widespread.

(1)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu.

3.04

No evidence of environmental impacts (1)naturalized in disturbed areas such as pastures, pond banks, along trails and in mesic forest and diverse mesic forest, 15-850 m

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

3.05

(1)Solanum carolinense L, Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav., Solanum robustum Wendl. and Solanum torvum Sw. listed as Hawaii noxious weeds.

(1)http://plants.usda.gov/java/noxious?rptType=State&statefips=15 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008]

4.01

(1)with numerous or scattered prickles on most parts, pale or straw-colored, the prickles up to 12 mm

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.02

Unknown

4.03

(1)No evidence

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.04

(1)The fruit is reputed to be poisonous to livestock and has been used like S. mammosum as a cockroach poison. (2)Likewise, plants may produce chemical repellants and toxins that protect them from herbivores.Nipplefruit nightshade (Solanum mammosum L.) and red soda apple (Solanum capsicoides Cav.) produce fruits with a high animal toxicity that have been used as rodenticides and insecticides in tropical North and South America. (3)Solanum capsicoides fruits are considered to be poisonous in Edo. Paraíba, Brazil (M. Agra, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, personal communication), and some common names applied to this species ("cockroach poison," "poison diable") apparently refer to its toxic properties.

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI. (2)Bryson, C.T. and R. Carter. 2004. Biology of Pathways for Invasive Weeds. Weed Technology 18:1216-1220. (3)Levin, R.A., K. Watson and Lynn Bohs. 2005. A four-gene study of evolutionary relationships in Solanum section Acanthophora. American Journal of Botany 92: 603-612.

4.05

(1)The fruit is reputed to be poisonous to livestock and has been used like S. mammosum as a cockroach poison. (2)Likewise, plants may produce chemical repellants and toxins that protect them from herbivores.Nipplefruit nightshade (Solanum mammosum L.) and red soda apple (Solanum capsicoides Cav.) produce fruits with a high animal toxicity that have been used as rodenticides and insecticides in tropical North and South America. (3)Solanum capsicoides fruits are considered to be poisonous in Edo. Paraíba, Brazil (M. Agra, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, personal communication), and some common names applied to this species ("cockroach poison," "poison diable") apparently refer to its toxic properties.

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI. (2)Bryson, C.T. and R. Carter. 2004. Biology of Pathways for Invasive Weeds. Weed Technology 18:1216-1220. (3)Levin, R.A., K. Watson and Lynn Bohs. 2005. A four-gene study of evolutionary relationships in Solanum section Acanthophora. American Journal of Botany 92: 603-612.

4.06

Possible host of tomato diseases, but uncertain if these diseases are already widespread (1)Abstract: A powdery mildew (Oidium lycopersici)was recorded on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)for the first time in 1988 in the former Czechoslovakia.Since that time,regular occurrence of spontaneous infection on leaves of glasshouse-grown tomatoes has been observed in at least eight localities in the Czech Republic.Only the conidial (anamorph)stage was recorded;no sexual stage was found.For this reason a complete taxonomic determination is not possible.Morphological characterization confirmed that the observed powdery mildew could be described as Oidium lycopersici.In host-range studies 70 species of 20 genera of Solanaceae and 7 species of Cucurbitaceae were tested under controlled conditions with one isolate of O.lycopersici.Most of the Solanaceae expressed resistant or moderately susceptible reactions. High level of susceptibility was recorded only in some Solanum species (S.capsicoides,S.jamaicense,S. laciniatum,S.lycopersicoides).On some Cucurbitaceae (Cucumis melo,C.sativus,Cucurbita spp.) development of powdery mildew symptoms and sporulation were recorded. (2)Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) is a whitefly-transmitted gemini virus that was first found in the United States in July of 1997 in Florida...They tested over 50 plant species to determine if the virus could be experimentally transmitted to them by whiteflies and found that Arabidopsis thaliana, petunia (Petunia hybrida), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), browallia, red current tomato (Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium), tomatillo (Physalis ixocarpa), cossack pineapple (Physalis prunosa), red tropical soda apple (Solanum capsicoides), and silver night shade (Solanum eleagniflium) were hosts of TYLCV. However, whether or not these hosts become infected in nature was not determined. Nevertheless, these host range studies should help to identify natural hosts of TYLCV that might play a role in the epidemiology of the disease.

(1)Lebeda, A. and B. Mieslerová. 1999. Identification, occurrence and host range of tomato powdery mildew (Oidium lycopersicum) in the Czech Republic. Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica 34(1-2): 13-26. (2)Davis, M.J. Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus Weed Hosts [abstract]. Proceedings of the 2001 Georgia Vegetable Conference. January 5-7, 2001 Savannah, Georgia. The University of Georgia. Pp. 77-80

4.07

(1)The plants and fruits contain solanine which is poisonous to human beings and animals. (2)All parts of the plant should be considered poisonous.

(1)http://www.chinabiodiversity.com/search/aspecies/english/adetail.shtm?cspcode=a0000001765 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008] (2)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.08

No evidence that this small shrub increases fire hazards (1)naturalized in disturbed areas such as pastures, pond banks, along trails and in mesic forest and diverse mesic forest,

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.09

(1)Sunlight: Sun Exposure: Full Sun (2)Sun Exposure: Full Sun

(1)http://zipcodezoo.com/Plants/S/Solanum_capsicoides/ [Accessed 10 Oct 2008] (2)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/38381/ [Accessed 13 Oct 2008]

4.10

(1)Probably preferring sandy habitats but also recording from wet alluvial clay and limestone derived soils.

(1)http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=1576 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008]

4.11

(1)Annual or short-lived shrubs up to 1 m tall

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.12

Nuisance weed, but no evidence that dense thickets are formed (1)naturalized in disturbed areas such as pastures, pond banks, along trails and in mesic forest and diverse mesic forest, 15-850 m (2)Distribution and habitat. Queensland, New South Wales. Moreton, Wide Bay, Burnett, Cook, South Kennedy. North Coast (NC), Central Coast (CC), North-western slopes (NWS). Evergreen notophyll rainforest (no eucalypts), wet eucalypt forest with rainforest understorey, or rainforest margins. (3)Solanum capsicoides (poro‘iti taratara, cockroach berry, devil’s apple, soda apple) is reported by the Cook Islands Natural Heritage Project to be present on Rarotonga and Ma‘uke and was seen in cultivation of ‘Atiu. Although small, it is quite spiny and is not a desirable addition to the vegetation of these islands. It produces large amounts of small, tomato-like fruit that can be used in making ‘ei. Spread may be by birds, pigs or humans. This species is rapidly becoming established on Tonga. (4)Solanum capsicoides was seen at Asau on Savai‘i. Although small, it is quite spiny and would not be a desirable addition to the vegetation of Samoa.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://delta-intkey.com/solanum/www/capsicoi.htm [Accessed 10 Oct 2008] (3)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. (4)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Solanaceae

5.03

Solanaceae

5.04

(1)Annual or short-lived shrubs up to 1 m tall

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

6.02

(1)Seeds numerous, flattened

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)Self-compatible

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

6.05

(1)No evidence of specialized floral morphology (2)The conspicuous flowers of the family are entomophilous…Most Solanum species have no nectar, and pollinators (Hymenoptera and Diptera) visit the flowers to collect pollen.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Zomlefer, W.B. 1994. Guide to Flowering Plant Families. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, NC.

6.06

(1)No evidence

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

6.07

(1)Annual or short-lived shrubs up to 1 m tall

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

7.01

Fruits and seeds with no means of external attachment

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

7.02

(1)widely grown for the ornamental fruit and now widely naturalized in tropical regions

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

7.03

Possibly spread in lei material (1)Solanum capsicoides (cockroach berry, devil’s apple, soda apple) has been introduced to several South Pacific islands as an ornamental. It is becoming well established in Tonga, particularly on Vava’u. Although small, it is quite spiny and would probably be a problem for agriculture as well as a general nuisance. It produces large amounts of small, tomato-like fruit. Spread may be by birds or pigs or by humans who use the fruit in lei-making.

(1)Space, J.C., B. M. Waterhouse, J. E. Miles, J. Tiobech and K. Rengulbai. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on Invasive Plant Species of Environmental Concern. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Honolulu

7.04

(1)The seeds have become much broader in S. capsicoides and it is significant that they not only are blown around more easily than those of S. atropurpureum but that they also float for a few days.

(1)http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=1576 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008]

7.05

(1)The seeds have become much broader in S. capsicoides and it is significant that they not only are blown around more easily than those of S. atropurpureum but that they also float for a few days.

(1)http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=1576 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008]

7.06

Although fruits possess traits adapted for bird dispersal, references 2-4 suggest these may be a relictual traits (1)Berries bright orange scarlet when mature, the flesh white, dryish, depressed-globose, 2-3.5 cm in diameter. Seeds numerous, flattened, bordered by a distinct narrow wing ca. 1.5 mm wide, 4-5 mm in diameter, testa minutely pitted. (2)There seems no longer to be any provision for animal dispersal of the fruits of S. capsicoides since they regularly are found on herbarium specimens in the mature state; they are nearly dry at maturity and split irregularly to permit the seeds to escape in a not very effective shaker mechanism. The development (or retention?) of the striking bright orange-red color of the fruits in this context is difficult to explain. (3)Nee (1991) observed that fruits of S. capsicoides and S. platense split irregularly at maturity and, thus, may form a shaker or censer mechanism to disperse the seeds. (4)A notable exception was Solanum capsicoides, whose large, yellow-orange fruits fit the mammal syndrome but contain no alkaloid. These fruits have no apparent flavor or odor, are extremely low in nutrients, and split apart when ripe to cast off flattened (winged?) seeds, thus suggesting selection for wind dispersal.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=1576 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008] (3)Levin, R.A., K. Watson and Lynn Bohs. 2005. A four-gene study of evolutionary relationships in Solanum section Acanthophora. American Journal of Botany 92: 603-612. (4)Cipollini, M.L. and Douglas J. Levey. 1997. Secondary Metabolites of Fleshy Vertebrate-Dispersed Fruits: Adaptive Hypotheses and Implications for Seed Dispersal. The Americ

7.07

No means of external attachment (1)Berries bright orange scarlet when mature, the flesh white, dryish, depressed-globose, 2-3.5 cm in diameter. Seeds numerous, flattened, bordered by a distinct narrow wing ca. 1.5 mm wide, 4-5 mm in diameter, testa minutely pitted. (2)There seems no longer to be any provision for animal dispersal of the fruits of S. capsicoides since they regularly are found on herbarium specimens in the mature state; they are nearly dry at maturity and split irregularly to permit the seeds to escape in a not very effective shaker mechanism. The development (or retention?) of the striking bright orange-red color of the fruits in this context is difficult to explain.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=1576 [Accessed 10 Oct 2008]

7.08

Unknown [see Question 7.06]

8.01

(1)mean number of seeds per fruit = 298.5 [Table 1]

(1)Chiarini, F.E. & Gloria E. Barboza. 2007. PLACENTATION PATTERNS AND SEED NUMBER IN FRUITS OF SOUTH AMERICAN SOLANUM SUBGEN. LEPTOSTEMONUM (SOLANACEAE) SPECIES. DARWINIANA 45(2): 163-174.

8.02

Unknown

8.03

(1)Milestone and Forefront are the most effective herbicides for controlling dense stands of TSA. These herbicides possess postemergence control of existing plants and preemergence control of germinating seeds. Our research has shown that Milestone and Forefront will control germinating seedlings for over 6 months after application. [control for tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum) with similar biology]

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/UW/UW09700.pdf [Accessed 13 Oct 2008]

8.04

Unknown

8.05

Unknown