Saccharum spontaneum L. Common names: wild cane, wild sugarcane, fodder cane. Family - Poaceae. Synonyms: Saccharum arenicola Ohwi [= Saccharum spontaneum subsp. spontaneum], , Saccharum biflorum Forssk. [= Saccharum spontaneum subsp. aegyptiacum], Saccharum spontaneum var. arenicola (Ohwi) Ohwi [= Saccharum spontaneum subsp. spontaneum].

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

y

4

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

4.03

Parasitic

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y

1

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

n

0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

n

0

5.02

Grass

y

1

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

2

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y

1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

Total score:

17

Notes

Reference

1.01

No evidence.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)It is a tropical and subtropical species most commonly encountered in central and southeastern Asia. (2)"Native range: Old World Tropics." (3)Native:
AFRICA
Northern Africa: Algeria; Egypt; Libya
Northeast Tropical Africa: Ethiopia; Somalia
East Tropical Africa: Kenya; Tanzania; Uganda
West-Central Tropical Africa: Cameroon [n.]
West Tropical Africa: Burkina Faso; Ghana; Nigeria
South Tropical Africa: Malawi
ASIA-TEMPERATE
Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia
Western Asia: Afghanistan; Israel; Lebanon
Soviet Middle Asia: Tajikistan [w.]; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan
China: China
Eastern Asia: Japan; Taiwan
ASIA-TROPICAL
Indian Subcontinent: Bangladesh; Bhutan; India; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri Lanka
Indo-China: Cambodia; Laos; Myanmar; Thailand; Vietnam
Malesia: Indonesia; Malaysia; Papua New Guinea; Philippines
EUROPE
Southeastern Europe: Italy - Sicily

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/saccharum_spontaneum.htm (3)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?32625

2.02

2.03

(1)In New Guinea it grows from sea level to 1500 m and tolerates many soil textures and moistue levels. (2)"Saccharum spontaneum, one of the six species of the genus Saccharum (Daniels and Roach, 1987), has the widest distribution extending across three geographic zones: (i) the East Zone, which includes South Pacific islands, Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, China, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, and Burma (Myanmar); (ii) the Central Zone, which includes India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Middle East; and (iii) the West Zone (African-Mediterranean), which includes Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and other countries (Panje and Babu, 1960; Daniels and Roach, 1987)." (3)"Tropical and subtropical, in a wide range of habitats including marshes, stream banks, sand dunes; tolerates many soil types and moisture levels; a weed of roadsides, waste areas, fields."

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693. (2)http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/41/3/879 (3)http://www.lucidcentral.org/keys/FNW/FNW%20grasses/
html/fact%20sheets/Saccharum%20spontaneum.htm

2.04

(1)It is a tropical and subtropical species most commonly encountered in central and southeastern Asia. (2)"Native range: Old World Tropics." (3)Native:
AFRICA
Northern Africa: Algeria; Egypt; Libya
Northeast Tropical Africa: Ethiopia; Somalia
East Tropical Africa: Kenya; Tanzania; Uganda
West-Central Tropical Africa: Cameroon [n.]
West Tropical Africa: Burkina Faso; Ghana; Nigeria
South Tropical Africa: Malawi
ASIA-TEMPERATE
Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia
Western Asia: Afghanistan; Israel; Lebanon
Soviet Middle Asia: Tajikistan [w.]; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan
China: China
Eastern Asia: Japan; Taiwan
ASIA-TROPICAL
Indian Subcontinent: Bangladesh; Bhutan; India; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri Lanka
Indo-China: Cambodia; Laos; Myanmar; Thailand; Vietnam
Malesia: Indonesia; Malaysia; Papua New Guinea; Philippines
EUROPE
Southeastern Europe: Italy - Sicily

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/saccharum_spontaneum.htm (3)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?32625

2.05

(1)Naturalized in Hawaii. (2)naturalized elsewhere, including Mesoamerica

(1)http://ravenel.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/
result.cfm?genus=Saccharum&species=spontaneum&rank1=&epithet1= (2)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl

3.01

naturalized elsewhere, including Mesoamerica

http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl

3.02

"Tropical and subtropical, in a wide range of habitats including marshes, stream banks, sand dunes; tolerates many soil types and moisture levels; a weed of roadsides, waste areas, fields."

http://www.lucidcentral.org/keys/FNW/FNW%20grasses/
html/fact%20sheets/Saccharum%20spontaneum.htm

3.03

(1)"Nearly all reports of S. spontaneum as a weed are from Asia. It is a serious or principal weed of foraes in Thailand, pasture and pineapple in the Philippines, pasture, sugarcane and tea in India; and rubber and tea in Indonesia. It is a common weed of sugarcane in Bangldesh and the Philippines; tobacco in the Philippines; and wheat in India; and is an unranked weed of coffee in Indonesia and Kenya; cotton, jute, maize, peanut, rice, and sorghum in India; maize in Bangladesh; rice in Laos, Nepal, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam; rubber in Malaysia; and tea in China, Japan and Sri Lanka. The plant has infested nearly 4 million hectares in central India, often forcing farmers to abandon entire fields. Deep plowing followed by several lighter tillage operations helps reclaim fields, but reinfestation occurs unless control measures are continues."

Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

3.04

no evidence

3.05

no evidence

4.01

No evidence of such structures.

Wagner, W. L. Herbst, D. L. and Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu.

4.02

(1)"S. spontaneum may be allelopathic to crops. Leachates from rhizomes and roots inhibited shoot and root growth of three wheat varieties in petri dishes." (2)Possess strong Allelochemicals and Allelopathic properties. [No evidence of allelopathy under field conditions].

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693 (2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/kans.html

4.03

No evidence.

4.04

"Saccharum spontaneum: This is a tall semi-woody grass that is locally common in richer spots of Ischaemum/Rhynchospora grasslands and the younger growth is palatable."

http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/southpacific/palau.htm

4.05

No evidence.

4.06

(1)Harmful organism host: crop diseases; crop pests (2)"This weed hosts many sugarcane insects and diseases of economic importance."

(1)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl (2)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

4.07

No evidence.

4.08

(1)"Saccharum spontaneum, also known as paja blanca in Panama, is an invasive grass that grows in thick masses. On the dry season, the grass also dries and posses a fire hazard. " (2)"S. spontaneum resprouts vigorously after fire (Peet, Watkinson et al. 1999; Peet, Watkinson et al. 1999), and is in part maintained by the extensive wildfires that burn across Panama’s grasslands each summer, removing much native vegetation but leaving S. spontaneum rhizomes largely intact (Hammond 1999)."

(1)http://www.ifimages.com/public/image/1022737/view.html (2)http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:6Y_2uqFydfUJ:
research.yale.edu/prorena/publicaciones_files/ECO-03-03-En.pdf+%22Saccharum+spontaneum%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=us

4.09

(1)"Shading effectively eliminates Saccharum, suggesting that planting trees to overcome dispersal limitations and to produce shade cover is perhaps the best way to eliminate Saccharum and promote forest regeneration." (2)Abstract - " … Shading the Saccharum effectively eliminated it, whereas mowing led to increased light aboveground, ..." (3)"S. spontaneum is a early colonizer and was one of the first species to develop on a volcanic island of Indonesia formed in 1929."

(1)http://www.conservationevidence.com/ViewEntry.asp?ID=603 (2)Hooper, Elaine; Condit, Richard; Legendre, Pierre
Responses of 20 native tree species to reforestation strategies for abandoned farmland in Panama.
Ecological Applications 12 (6) : 1626-1641 December 2002 (3)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

4.1

(1)S. spontaneum is an early colonizer and ws one of the first species to develop on a volcanic island of Indonesia formed in 1929. Its rhizomes withstood repeatred eruptions and considerable accumulation of volcanic ash. To date it is onle of the most prevalent species and occurs to whithin 80 m of the top of the volcanoe's cone." (2)Tropical and subtropical, in a wide range of habitats including marshes, stream banks, sand dunes; tolerates many soil types and moisture levels; a weed of roadsides, waste areas, fields.

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693 (2)http://www.lucidcentral.org/keys/FNW/FNW%20grasses/html/
fact%20sheets/Saccharum%20spontaneum.htm

4.11

No evidence.

4.12

(1)"In Hawai‘i, "forming clumps or thickets in moist, disturbed areas such as along roadsides, 10-460 m" (2)"Large areas of the Panama Canal Watershed are presently occupied by the invasive Asian grass species Saccharum spontaneum, one of two wild species of sugarcane. S. spontaneum forms dense, continuous thickets that inhibit the establishment of woody species and are resistant to weed control measures due to the species’ deep and extensive root system. Reforestation efforts in S. spontaneum dominated landscapes require intensive weed-control efforts that often involve combinations of mechanical clearing and herbicide applications."

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/saccharum_spontaneum.htm (2)http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:6Y_2uqFydfUJ:research.yale.edu/
prorena/publicaciones_files/ECO-03-03-En.pdf+%22Saccharum+spontaneum%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=us

5.01

5.02

"S. spontaneum is a tropical grass species. … deep rooted, tufted or gregarious perennial …"

Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

5.03

5.04

6.01

"Factors affecting S. spontaneum flowering have been extensively studied. Some biotypes never seem to flower and others flower prolifically. Both genetic and environmental factors are involved and they often interact. Panje and Srinivasan (1959) collected 640 clones from lat 5 and 19 flowered readily, but those from further north often failed to flower. Nevertheless, even 33% of those from 30 to 34 degree flowered. Of the 177 clones planted at 11 deg and 30 deg N, 97 flowered 20 to 60 days later at the more northern latitude and 155 flowered 1 to 80 days later at the northern site. They calculated that flowering is delayed 2.4 days per 1 deg latitude. Most flowering occurs the second year after establishment. A brief exposure to light during teh dark period delays or prevents flowering."

Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

6.02

"Maintenance of the World Collection of S. spontaneum is challenged by vegetative collections subject to hurricane damage (Schnell et al., 1997), rhizomatous growth habit, large plant size, and the need of special growing conditions due to a noxious weed classification in the USA. The cost of maintaining vegetatively propagated germplasm of sugarcane also contributes to the severe restriction on the size of collection. To guard against its irretrievable loss, selfed-seed samples of 235 accessions of S. spontaneum are stored at the USDA-ARS National Seed Storage Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO, for long-term preservation ..."

http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/41/3/879?ck=nck

6.03

(1)"S. spontaneum is believed to have crossed spontaneously with Miscanthus floridulus to frome S. robustrum, which is one of the parents of noble sugarcane."

Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

6.04

(1)"Plants can be self or cross pollinated without difficulty, assuming flowers are present on both desired parents."

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

6.05

(1)"Pollen is readily wind borne and remains viable for 4 to 5 hr."

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

6.06

(1)"Perennial grass spreading by stout rhizomes." (2)"S. spontaneum L. (Kans) is a perennial weed in crop ecosystems of Ujjain [India]. It propagates vegetatively by rhizomes."

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/saccharum_spontaneum.htm (2)AMRITPHALE D; MALL L P
SOME ASPECTS OF RHIZOME BUD GERMINATION OF SACCHARUM-SPONTANEUM
Tropical Ecology 23 (2) : 310-315 1982

6.07

"Most flowering occurs the second year after establishment." [No evidence on how long it takes to establish from germination].

Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

7.01

with sugar can harvest

7.02

"S. spontaneum has several beneficial uses. While relatively high in fiber, it can be used as forage and maintains animal weight without the use of protein supplements … Plants also serve to make brooms, rope and mats, provide material for thatching or fencing, and can be used as paper pulp. Philippinos have several medicinal uses for the plants and young shoots are boiled and eaten with rice in Indonesia."

Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

7.03

(1)Weed: also potential seed contaminant (2)Probably yes as S. spontaneum seeds are wind borne and this specis often inhabits areas in and around fields of ecomomically important forage crops.

(1)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl (2)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

7.04

(1)"Seeds are readily dispersed by wind."

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

7.05

No evidence

7.06

No evidence

7.07

No evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment.

7.08

No evidence.

8.01

Probably yes - "Seed production also varies among ecotypes. In the Philippines, 12,800 seeds/plant were found, while in India 3042 were produced."

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693

8.02

Abstract:  Germination trials were carried out on surface and buried soil samples from the Krakatau islands, with the aim of characterizing the nature and variability of the short-term seed bank and the potential significance of long-term subsurface seed storage. Thirty-six species of seed plants representing the Krakatau flora germinated from the samples. The topsoil samples yielded the largest number of seedlings and species, and had a faster pace of germination. These samples were found to be locally similar to each other but disharmonic with the extant vegetation. Seeds germinated both from samples buried by land crabs and from soils buried by layers of volcanic ash deposited ca 1930-33 and 1952-53. Eleven species of seed plants germinated from four samples buried ca 1930-33, indicating that these seeds survived burial by volcanic ash for ca 60 years.

Biotropica 27 (3) : 346-354 1995

8.03

(1)"Abstract:
A field experiment was conducted during kharif 1993/94 at Akola, Maharashtra, India to evaluate the efficacy of different weed control treatments against Saccharum spontaneum infesting safflower. The treatments were: (T1) control; (T2) two sprays of glyphosate at 1.84 kg a.i./ha at 20-day intervals; (T3) digging up to 20 cm depth + two sprays of glyphosate at 1.84 kg a.i./ha at 20-day intervals; (T4) three sprays of glyphosate at 1.84 kg a.i./ha at 20-day intervals; (T5) two sprays of glyphosate at 2.76 kg a.i./ha at 20-day intervals; (T6) digging up to 20 cm depth + two sprays of glyphosate at 2.76 kg a.i./ha at 20-day intervals; (T7) three glyphosate sprays at 2.76 kg a.i./ha at 20-day intervals; and (T8) digging up to 20 cm depth and collection of rhizomes. All treatments with glyphosate recorded more than 70% weed control efficiency and significantly reduced the dry weight and N, P and K uptake of weeds. T6 recorded the highest weed control efficiency (82.12%) and the lowest weed dry weight (16.39 q/ha) and N (13.07 kg/ha), P (4.75 kg/ha) and K uptake (8.19 kg/ha). Glyphosate had no significant residual effect on the emergence of safflower.
(2)"Abstract: A field experiment was conducted for two years to evaluate the effect of four herbicides, glyphosate, paraquat, atrazine, and sencor on the effect of weeds in a mango (Mangifera indica L.) nursery. Glyphosate was sprayed at 7.5 mL and 10 mL L-1 three times, at 20 days prior to sowing, at sowing, and 20 days after seed germination. Paraquat was sprayed at 3.0 mL and 4.0 mL L-1 20 days after germination. Atrazine at 2.0 kg and 3.0 kg ha-1 and sencor at 0.5 kg and 1.0 kg ha-1 were applied at sowing. Glyphosate at 20 days prior to sowing and the weed-free treatment significantly increased seedling leaf number, photosynthetic rate (Pn), chlorophyll content, nitrate reductase activity (NRA), protein, and total sugar levels. Paraquat significantly increased seedling leaf number, temperature, transpiration rate, and chlorophyll a content, while post application of glyphosate and higher concentrations of atrazine, sencor, and paraquat significantly decreased Pn, but they increased leaf temperature and transpiration rate. Glyphosate application at 10.0 mL L-1 at 20 days prior to sowing completely controlled Saccharum spontaneum L., Crotolaria medicaginea Lamk, and Trichodesma indicum R.Br. in the rainy season while in the following winter, it controlled S. spontaneum L., Medicago lupulina, and Erigron bonariansis. At sowing it did not completely control S. spontaneum L. Paraquat controlled Dechantheum annulatum, Fimbristylis tenera L., Launea pinnatifida, and T. indicum R.Br. but did not completely control S. spontaneum L. and did not affect winter weeds except E. bonariansis. Atrazine and sencor both completely controlled D. annulatum, F. tenera L., T. indicum R.Br., and L. pinnatifida in the rainy season and only M. lupulina in the following winter. Higher concentrations of atrazine and sencor were more effective. Generally, all the herbicides decreased the weed population and their dry weight."

Tropical Agriculture 78 (3) : 200-205 July 2001

8.04

(1)S. spontaneum is an early colonizer and ws one of the first species to develop on a volcanic island of Indonesia formed in 1929. Its rhizomes withstood repeatred eruptions and considerable accumulation of volcanic ash. To date it is onle of the most prevalent species and occurs to whithin 80 m of the top of the volcanoe's cone. Repeated burning of cropland results in nearly pure stands of S. spontaneum ..." (2)"S. spontaneum resprouts vigorously after fire (Peet, Watkinson et al. 1999; Peet, Watkinson et al. 1999), and is in part maintained by the extensive wildfires that burn across Panama’s grasslands each summer, removing much native vegetation but leaving S. spontaneum rhizomes largely intact (Hammond 1999)."

(1)Holm LeRoy, Doll Jerry, Holm Eric, Pancho Juan, Herberger James. 1997. World Weeds: natural histories and distributions. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Pg 693 (2)http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:6Y_2uqFydfUJ:
research.yale.edu/prorena/publicaciones_files/ECO-03-03-En.pdf+%22Saccharum+spontaneum%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=us

8.05

Don’t know.