Ricinus communis L. Family - Euphorbiaceae. Common Names(s) - castorbean. Synonym(s) - .

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

21

Notes

Source

1.01

No evidence that selection has resulted in reduced weediness. (1)It is a fast-growing shrub or small tree, to about 4 m high, and the seed oil has been utilized for at least 6000 years. The oil was used by Ancient Egyptians for illumination, but current uses are mainly in a wide range of industrial oils, for soaps, paints, varnishes, textile dyes, leather preservation and waterproofing for fabrics, or for preparation of medicinal products. Some forms are ornamental. Silkworms are fed on the leaves in Africa. Breeding for high oil content and frost tolerance should be further studied. The main disadvantage is that it can become weedy, and invade agricultural land.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)R. communis is probably native to Africa, although it has long been cultivated or is found growing wild throughout the tropics, subtropics and many warm temperate countries...R. communis is probably a native to East Africa. It was grown for its oil in Egypt as long as 6000 years ago. Spreading into Asia, it reached the Far East at an early date. It has long been cultivated or is found growing wild throughout the tropics, subtropics and many warm temperate countries.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

Native and introduced range well within tropics.

2.03

(1)R. communis is a long-day plant but is adaptable to a fairly wide day-length range. It grows throughout the warm-temperate and tropical regions. It has been commercially cultivated from 40°S to 52°N, the limiting factor being frost. Suitable soil temperatures for germination are between 10-18°C, and average day temperatures of 20-26°C with a minimum of 15°C and a maximum of 38°C, with low humidity. It prefers clear, sunny days, but temperatures of 40°C or higher at flowering are detrimental. R. communis is tolerant to water stress because of its deep rooting system but is sensitive to excesses of water and humidity...It is commonly found from sea level to 2000 m at the equator, with an optimum between 300-1500 m.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.04

(1)R. communis is probably native to Africa, although it has long been cultivated or is found growing wild throughout the tropics, subtropics and many warm temperate countries...R. communis is probably a native to East Africa. It was grown for its oil in Egypt as long as 6000 years ago. Spreading into Asia, it reached the Far East at an early date. It has long been cultivated or is found growing wild throughout the tropics, subtropics and many warm temperate countries.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.05

(1)R. communis naturalizes easily and is presently found in the drier areas of many tropical and subtropical countries. Buurt (1999) notes that it was introduced to Curaçao from the Old World while it has been noted in Bermuda but not as an invasive. It is an invasive species in parts of Australia, the USA and southern Africa. Deacon (1986) summarizes the evidence for the very early introduction of this species into South Africa, with a number of archaelogical records dating as far back as the stone age. It is common or weedy on American Samoa (Space and Flynn, 1999), Niue (Space and Flynn, 2000), Micronesia (Space and Falnruw, 1999) and 'cultivated, common or weedy' on Chuuk (Space et al., 2000). In addition to ten countries where it is a principal or common weed, Holm et al. (1979) list its occurrence as a weed of unknown importance in 36 countries. This species has a very widespread distribution as a weed of greater or lesser importance and the long history of cultivation across the tropics would suggest t

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.01

(1)R. communis naturalizes easily and is presently found in the drier areas of many tropical and subtropical countries. Buurt (1999) notes that it was introduced to Curaçao from the Old World while it has been noted in Bermuda but not as an invasive. It is an invasive species in parts of Australia, the USA and southern Africa. Deacon (1986) summarizes the evidence for the very early introduction of this species into South Africa, with a number of archaelogical records dating as far back as the stone age. It is common or weedy on American Samoa (Space and Flynn, 1999), Niue (Space and Flynn, 2000), Micronesia (Space and Falnruw, 1999) and 'cultivated, common or weedy' on Chuuk (Space et al., 2000). In addition to ten countries where it is a principal or common weed, Holm et al. (1979) list its occurrence as a weed of unknown importance in 36 countries. This species has a very widespread distribution as a weed of greater or lesser importance and the long history of cultivation across the tropics would suggest that it is already present in the majority of countries where it is likely to grow.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.02

(1)In its exotic range R. communis invades grasslands, heathlands, riparian communities, disturbed land and farmland (Weber, 2003). In South Africa, Henderson (2001) also reports it from road margins and wasteland. A degree of disturbance appears particularly important in the establishment of this species (Weber, 2003) and the disturbance factor is mentioned in association with its colonization of vegetation in South Africa and Hawaii (Cronk and Fuller, 2003).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.03

(1)In Brazil it invades farmland and adjacent areas, rubbish tips and disturbed soil and is one of the first species to colonize burned land, and in Spain it can invade sand dunes (Institute Hórus de Desenvolvimento and Ambient Conservaçao, 2003)...Although R. communis may occasionally invade agricultural land, it is principally an environmental weed.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.04

(1) It is reported invasive or weedy in many countries particularly in the tropics and since dense thickets shade out native flora it is able to have negative impacts on biodiversity. There should be vigilance to look for the earliest signs of invasive behaviour in the wild. Although R. communis may occasionally invade agricultural land, it is principally an environmental weed... The environmental impact results from the dense thickets formed by this species which shade out native vegetation (Weber, 2003)... Due to its noted invasiveness, it is a regulated weed in several countries. In South Africa, R. communis is a declared category 2 invader under the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 (Henderson, 2001). It is one of a number of species showing a degree of invasive behaviour in Botswana (Buss, 2002). In Australia it is a category W2 weed (which must be destroyed) in parts of New South Wales and is a category B/C weed in Northern Territory (National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee (NWSEC), 1998). In Western Australia it has not yet been assessed and is therefore banned until a weed risk assessment has taken place (National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee (NWSEC), 1998). In the USA, it is a category 2 invasive plant (i.e. not yet thought to have altered the native assemblage) in Florida (Miller et al., 2002) and a B list invasive (plant of lesser invasiveness) in California (California Exotic Pest Plant Council, 1999).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.05

(1)Ricinus L. is considered to be monotypic (R. communis). Previously described species have been transferred to other genera or grouped within R. communis. Some are large perennials, others behave as short-lived dwarf annuals and every gradation between them can be found. Colour differences in leaves, stems and inflorescences have resulted in selection of these variants as horticultural plants. However, attempts to classify such selections as subspecies are botanically inaccurate. In most countries 'red' and 'white' types are distinguished based on the colour of young shoots. Within these, forms or cultivars are recognized based on seed characteristics.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.01

(1)R. communis is an evergreen glabrous, soft-woody shrub or small tree, often grown as annual, 1-5 m tall, with a strong tap-root and prominent lateral roots. Shoots usually glaucous, variously green or red.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.02

Possibly, but no evidence from natural field conditions. (1)among 19 species, 13 plants exhibited significant suppression on germination of radish including C. fistula, C. communis, D. rezoni, E. hirta, G. pendula, L. cylindrical, L. glauca, M. esculenta, M. azedarach, M. alba, P. congesta, R. communis and T. candida.

(1)Hong, N. H.; Xuan, Tran Dang; Eiji, Tsuzuki; Hiroyuki, Terao; Mitsuhiro, Matsuo; Khanh, Tran Dang. 2003. Screening for allelopathic potential of higher plants from Southeast Asia Source: Crop Protection 22(6): 829-836 .

4.03

No evidence

4.04

(1)Leaves are unpalatable and unlikely to be eaten by stock.

(1)http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=&ibra=all&card=S05 [Accessed 22 July 2008]

4.05

(1) Seeds are highly poisonous and the seeds are particularly dangerous (Henderson, 2001) and are likely to constitute a hazard for children and animals...The presscake is poisonous and cannot be fed to animals.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.06

(1)Few diseases of R. communis are of economic importance. Normally, serious attacks only occur in R. communis crops growing poorly and under humid conditions. The most damaging pathogens attacking seedlings are various rots ('damping off' caused by Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Phytophthora). The most common foliar disease is a rust caused by Melampsora ricini which now probably occurs worldwide. Cercospora ricinella, a leaf-spot disease, can become locally damaging in Indonesia. Of the capsule diseases, Alternaria spp. and Botrytis spp. are the most serious. Probably the most damaging pests are those attacking the inflorescence, such as mirids (Helopeltis spp.). Peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis) is a most important pest in India and throughout South-East Asia.

Few diseases of R. communis are of economic importance. Normally, serious attacks only occur in R. communis crops growing poorly and under humid conditions. The most damaging pathogens attacking seedlings are various rots ('damping off' caused by Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Phytophthora). The most common foliar disease is a rust caused by Melampsora ricini which now probably occurs worldwide. Cercospora ricinella, a leaf-spot disease, can become locally damaging in Indonesia. Of the capsule diseases, Alternaria spp. and Botrytis spp. are the most serious. Probably the most damaging pests are those attacking the inflorescence, such as mirids (Helopeltis spp.). Peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis) is a most important pest in India and throughout South-East Asia.

4.07

(1) Seeds are highly poisonous and the seeds are particularly dangerous (Henderson, 2001) and are likely to constitute a hazard for children and animals. (2)All parts of the Castor bean plant are poisonous, and the seeds especially, are highly toxic. You should not grow castor beans where children play; the seeds are just too pretty and too deadly. Children have died from eating castor bean seeds.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.floridata.com/ref/R/rici_com.cfm [Accessed 22 July 2008]

4.08

No evidence [well documented weed with no mention of fire impacts/risks]

4.09

(1)Light: Full sun is best.

(1)http://www.floridata.com/ref/R/rici_com.cfm [Accessed 22 July 2008]

4.10

(1)R. communis seedlings are poor competitors however. R. communis will grow on almost any type of soil as long as it is well drained, not saline and reasonably fertile. preferring deep sandy loams with pH 5-6.5.

Few diseases of R. communis are of economic importance. Normally, serious attacks only occur in R. communis crops growing poorly and under humid conditions. The most damaging pathogens attacking seedlings are various rots ('damping off' caused by Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Phytophthora). The most common foliar disease is a rust caused by Melampsora ricini which now probably occurs worldwide. Cercospora ricinella, a leaf-spot disease, can become locally damaging in Indonesia. Of the capsule diseases, Alternaria spp. and Botrytis spp. are the most serious. Probably the most damaging pests are those attacking the inflorescence, such as mirids (Helopeltis spp.). Peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis) is a most important pest in India and throughout South-East Asia.

4.11

Not a vine

4.12

(1)It is reported invasive or weedy in many countries particularly in the tropics and since dense thickets shade out native flora it is able to have negative impacts on biodiversity.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Euphorbiaceae

5.03

Euphorbiaceae

5.04

Not a true geophyte, although deeply taprooted

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1) Cronk and Fuller (1995) report that given the right environmental conditions, R. communis may reproduce at any time of year. Seed production may be highly precocious, for example, flowering within 6 months of germination is possible

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.03

(1)Ricinus L. is considered to be monotypic (R. communis). Previously described species have been transferred to other genera or grouped within R. communis. Some are large perennials, others behave as short-lived dwarf annuals and every gradation between them can be found. Colour differences in leaves, stems and inflorescences have resulted in selection of these variants as horticultural plants. However, attempts to classify such selections as subspecies are botanically inaccurate. In most countries 'red' and 'white' types are distinguished based on the colour of young shoots. Within these, forms or cultivars are recognized based on seed characteristics.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.04

(1)Castor bean is both self- and cross-pollinated by wind, varying from 5–36% depending on the weather conditions. Pollen sheds readily between 26–29°C, with a relative humidity of 60%.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Ricinus_communis.html [Accessed 22 July 2008]

6.05

(1)The flowers are monoecious (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002). Pollen is mainly shed in the morning and pollination is by wind.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.06

No evidence

6.07

(1)R. communis seedlings emerge 10-20 days after sowing. The first flowers open 40-70 days after sowing. The successive formation of branches and inflorescences continues through the plant's life. One plant thus bears flowers in different stages of development. The period from emergence to maturation varies from 140 to 170 days. Ripening of fruits along the raceme is uneven, the lower maturing before the upper, and in wild types the period between first and last mature fruits may be several weeks. It is a relatively short-lived plant, living for two or three years (Institute Hórus de Desenvolvimento and Ambient Conservaçao, 2003).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.01

(1)"Seed is spread by floodwaters, in mud adhering to boots, vehicles or machinery, and in garden waste and soil" (2)Seeds are spread by floodwaters and in seed-infested soil.

(1)Smith, N. M. 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide. Environment Centre NT, Inc. (2)Hussey, B.M.J., G.J. Keighery, J. Dodd., S.G. lloyd and R.D. Cousens. 2007. Western weeds (second edition). A guide to the weeds of Western Australia. The Weed Society of Western Australia. Victoria Park, Western Australia.

7.02

(1)Gravity disperses seeds from the pods when the ripe pods explode open (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002). Birds, rodents, other mammals and humans spread the seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002; Weber, 2003), and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (2002) regard man as the main dispersal agent... The species is very widely distributed internationally as a result of intentional introduction, and has been widely planted for the production of castor oil; it has been able to escape into the wild from such plantings.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

No evidence

7.04

(1)Gravity disperses seeds from the pods when the ripe pods explode open (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002). Birds, rodents, other mammals and humans spread the seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002; Weber, 2003), and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (2002) regard man as the main dispersal agent.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.05

(1)Gravity disperses seeds from the pods when the ripe pods explode open (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002). Birds, rodents, other mammals and humans spread the seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002; Weber, 2003), and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (2002) regard man as the main dispersal agent.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.06

Apparently infrequent, but possible (1)Gravity disperses seeds from the pods when the ripe pods explode open (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002). Birds, rodents, other mammals and humans spread the seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002; Weber, 2003), and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (2002) regard man as the main dispersal agent.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.07

(1)Gravity disperses seeds from the pods when the ripe pods explode open (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002). Birds, rodents, other mammals and humans spread the seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002; Weber, 2003), and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (2002) regard man as the main dispersal agent. (2)Some seeds rely on fleshy lipid-rich appendages as attractants to ants. By carrying those seeds to their nest, ants play a major role as seed dispersers and can provide suitable conditions for seed germination. Ricinus communis (the commonly known castor) seeds are primarily dispersed by autochory but probably present secondary dispersal by ants, once they bear a lipid-rich elaiosome. The following questions were addressed: (1) are ants legitimate dispersers of castor seeds?; (2) which ant species interact with the seeds?; and (3) is germination success higher in a predicted scenario met by seeds discarded from ant nest ? We compared the removal of seeds with and without elaiosome and we determined which ant species interact with castor seeds and whether there was seed predation by ants. We performed experiments under controlled conditions to evaluate seed germination responses to light, temperature and elaiosome. Seeds with elaiosome were removed preferentially and no predation was found, indicating that ants are legitimate seed dispersers. A large coterie of ants (20 species) interacts with castor seeds, especially Myrmicinae species. Elaiosome removal enhanced germination success, as well as alternated temperatures and absence of light. Such conditions are a mixture of two of the three scenarios we assumed for castor seed germination, and are met by seeds discarded from ant nest, but covered by a thin layer of litter, or eventually abandoned inside the nest, but in shallow depths. Therefore, by discarding seeds without elaiosome on the pile mound, ants may submit castor seeds to conditions that enhance germination.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Martins, V. F., P. B. Guimaraes, R. R. Da Silva and J. Semir. 2006. Secondary seed dispersal by ants of Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) in the atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil : Influence on seed germination. Sociobiology 47(1): 265-274.

7.08

Possibly, but no information on gut passage found. (1)Gravity disperses seeds from the pods when the ripe pods explode open (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002). Birds, rodents, other mammals and humans spread the seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 2002; Weber, 2003), and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (2002) regard man as the main dispersal agent.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.01

(1)Average seed yields are between 400-1000 kg/ha seeds, with maximum yields of approximately 3000 kg/ha. (2)R. communis reproduces by seed. Plants become reproductive in the first season (within six months) and are capable of flowering year round in a frost-free environment. A single large plant 10.2 feet (8 m) diameter was found to produce 150,000 seeds, while a smaller plant thirty-nine inches (1 m) diameter produced only 1,500 seeds (Cal-IPC, UNDATED).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1000&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 22 July 2008]

8.02

(1)Due to an extensive seed bank in the soil, it is important to check for and spray any new seedlings that germinate after removal of the adult plant. (2)Storage Conditions: >90% germination following 21 months storage at room temperature with 5-7% mc (Lago et al., 1979); seeds not damaged from exposure to liquid nitrogen (Stanwood & Bass, 1981; p50= 13.3 years for seeds stored under open storagein a temperate climate (Priestley, 1986) (3)It can be difficult to control, as seeds can lay dormant for 30 years before germinating.

(1)http://www.botanybay.nsw.gov.au/pdf/parks/NativeNweeds/castor%20oil.indd.pdf [Accessed 22 July 2008] (2)http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=19814&Num=V7b [Accessed 22 July 2008] (3)http://www.lhccrems.nsw.gov.au/weeds_cd/riparian.html [Accessed 22 July 2008]

8.03

(1)Seedlings and young plants may be removed by hand whereas larger plants that need felling also require stump-treatment with a herbicide (Weber, 2003). Herbicides such as glyphosate or picloram + 2,4-D are effective if applied before the plant has set fruit (Weber, 2003). There is no information available on any biological control programmes.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.04

(1)Fire has been used to control areas where R. communis has formed large thickets (Weber, 2003). However, it is sometimes reported to be a good colonist of newly burned areas being one of the first seeds to germinate in this situation (Institute Hórus de Desenvolvimento and Ambient Conservaçao, 2003). (2)Areas of native vegetation subjected to fire have produced solid stands of castor bean, although castor bean plants had been absent from the area for more than ten years, suggesting that seeds of castor bean are long-lived (Kitz, pers. comm.). Plants resprout from root crowns when cut.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/datastore/detailreport.cfm?usernumber=69&surveynumber=182 [Accessed 22 July 2008]

8.05

Unknown [probably not] (1)Since castor bean is a crop in some places in the United States, there is no biocontrol program. A large number of diseases and pests are known to impact castor bean crops (Kranz et al. 1977). Mung moth, pink bollworm, scab, wilt, leaf spot, seedling blight, inflorescence rot, pod rot, rust spot, graymold, crown rot, stem canker, leaf blight, bacterial wilt, and angular leaf spots are known to impact castor bean crops, but are rarely seen in riparian wildland plants. Leaves rarely show evidence of herbivory, although occasional leaf browse recently has been seen in the Santa Monica Mountains (Kitz, pers. comm.). Grazing is not recommended because of the plant’s toxicity to livestock and other animals.

(1)https://mail.hawaii.edu/uwc/webmail/en/mail.html?lang=en&laurel=on&cal=0 [Accessed 22 July 2008]