Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.; Inga dulcis, Mimosa dulcis, Madras thorn, Manila tamarind, sweet inga, opiuma

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

y

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

y

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

14

Notes

Source

1.01

A variegated mutant has been used as an ornamental pot plant (Hendro Sunarjono and Coronel, 1991) and garden as a plant in Hawaii (Neal, 1965).

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.02

Pithecellobium dulce originates from Central America. It has been naturalized throughout the tropics. It was introduced in Indonesia by the Portuguese traders and in the Philippines by the Spaniards; it is also common in Malaysia and Thailand.

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

1.03

(1) Although some specimens are spineless, most have a pair of short, sharp spines at the base of each leaf.
(2) A variegated mutant has been used as an ornamental pot plant (Hendro Sunarjono and Coronel, 1991) and garden as a plant in Hawaii (Neal, 1965). [these two races probably less weedy than normal form]

(1) http://www.affa.gov.au/content/output.cfm?&OBJECTID=D2C48F86-BA1A-11A1-A2200060B0A03969
(2) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.01

Native
NORTHERN AMERICA
Northern Mexico: Mexico - Baja California, San Luis Potosi, Sonora, Tamaulipas
Central Mexico: Mexico - Colima, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Puebla, Queretaro, Veracruz
SOUTHERN AMERICA
Mesoamerica: El Salvador; Guatemala; Honduras; Mexico - Chiapas, Yucatan; Nicaragua
Northern South America: Venezuela [w.]
Western South America: Colombia [n. & w.]

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Pithecellobium+dulce (18 May 2004)

2.02

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Pithecellobium+dulce (18 May 2004)

2.03

(1)Beyond the fact that it is a truly tropical species and does not withstand frost, P. dulce is not exacting in its climatic requirements. It grows well in dry and subhumid areas, but thrives best in dry hot tropical and subtropical climates, with rainfall between 700 and 1800 mm and a 4-6 month dry season (Brewbaker, 1992; Luna, 1996). It can withstand considerable heat and drought and is naturalized in India in areas with temperature maxima as high as 48 degree C and annual rainfall as low as 250 mm (Troup and Joshi, 1983; Hocking, 1993).
Descriptors
- Altitude range: 0 - 1550 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 250 - 1800 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; bimodal
- Dry season duration: 4 - 6 months
- Mean annual temperature: 18 - 26 C
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 32 - 41C
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 8 - 20C
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 0C (2)Pithecellobium dulce is one of the most common trees of the Mexican highlands. [found in highlands and lowlands]

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://plantsdatabase.com/go/55957

2.04

Pithecellobium dulce originates from Central America. It has been naturalized throughout the tropics. It was introduced in Indonesia by the Portuguese traders and in the Philippines by the Spaniards; it is also common in Malaysia and Thailand.

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Pithecellobium+dulce (18 May 2004)

2.05

Location of introductions
During 1521-1815, P. dulce was introduced to the Philippines from Mexico aboard one of the Spanish government galleons that sailed between Acapulco and Manila, along with 200 other American species including other woody legumes such as Gliricidia, Leucaena, Prosopis and Samanea (Merrill, 1912). An early (pre-1800) introduction to Asia is certain, given that although P. dulce is native to tropical America, it was first described and named in 1798 by Roxburgh from material collected in India, reported to have been introduced from the Philippines. The very wide present-day pantropical distribution, extent of naturalization and the great abundance of local vernacular names, provide further evidence of the wide distribution and cultivation of P. dulce across the tropics in early historical times. It is particularly abundant, and often weedy in the Caribbean (e.g. in Puerto Rico with Prosopis pallida along the fringes of mangrove), Hawaii (in pastures), and warmer and drier regions of sout

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.01

Pithecellobium dulce originates from Central America. It has been naturalized throughout the tropics. It was introduced in Indonesia by the Portuguese traders and in the Philippines by the Spaniards; it is also common in Malaysia and Thailand.

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

3.02

it has a reputation as a pest in grass pastures, but normally only when fields have been left nitrogen-starved [distrurbance weed - invades severely degraded habitats]

http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_dulce.html

3.03

(1)It is thorny, produces abundant natural regeneration in many areas where introduced and planted, can spread quickly by bird dispersal of seeds, coppices rapidly after cutting or fire, and produces vigourous, very thorny root suckers triggered by injury to tree roots, a set of traits that mean it can invade pastures and other ruderal sites and can be difficult to kill once trees are established. It is notably weedy in the Caribbean (Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and St. Croix), in Florida (Morton, 1976) and in Hawaii where it is naturalized throughout the dry lowlands and classified as a pest (Holm et al., 1979). It is also recorded as a weed in India (Holm et al., 1979; Troup and Joshi, 1983) and in Tamil Nadu, where it is self-sown from hedge plants and avenue trees on all roadsides and waste lands. Repeated attempts to replace P. dulce with other species have failed. Importation of P. dulce to Australia is banned because of its known potential to become a weed and the possible threat posed to Australian pas

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.daff.gov.au/content/output.cfm?ObjectID=D2C48F86-BA1A-11A1-A2200060B0A03969

3.04

AB: "The major environmental weeds of Christmas Island are Adenanthera pavonina, Aleurites moluccana, Castilla elastica, Clausena excavata, Cordia curassavica, Delonix regia, Ficus elastica, Hevea brasiliensis, Mikania micrantha, Mucuna albertisii, Pithecellobium dulce, ..." [cannot confirm vague statements in this reference - not listed as a pest by other sources, e.g. http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/christmas/flora.html]

Swarbrick, J. T. Hart, R. (2001) Environmental weeds of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) and their management. Plant Protection Quarterly, 2001, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 54-57, 2 ref.

3.05

Several other species of Pithecellobium behave as weeds in tropical countries: P. filamentosum in Brazil, P. lanceolatum in Columbia and P. ligustrinum in Venezuela.

http://www.affa.gov.au/content/output.cfm?&OBJECTID=D2C48F86-BA1A-11A1-A2200060B0A03969

4.01

"Shrub or small tree, up to 10 m tall, with glabrescent round branchlets, armed with straight, paired, stipular spines, 4 10 mm long. Leaves abruptly bipinnate with a single pair of pinnae only; rachis 1 2.5 cm long; pinnae with rachis up to 7.5 mm long with small terminal stipular spines"

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

4.02

AB: "Laboratory, screenhouse and field experiments were carried out at IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria, from 1990, to determine the effects of 14 multipurpose tree species on the germination and initial growth of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) and maize. Aqueous leaf extracts of 25, 50, 75 and 100% concentrations were used in the germination experiments. In further experiments cowpeas and maize were grown in pots with 1.2 kg soil and mulch was either surface applied or incorporated into the substrate at rates equivalent to 5, 10 or 20 t/ha with prunings of Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala and Senna siamea [syn. Cassia siamea]. Maize germination and growth were significantly reduced by extracts of G. sepium, L. leucocephala, S. siamea, Tetrapleura tetraptera, Pithecellobium dulce, Alchornea cordifolia and Gmelina arborea. " [LAB ONLY]

Kamara, A. Y. (1998) Investigations into the effects of some selected multipurpose trees on weeds and growth of maize (Zea mays (L.)) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.)) in South-Western Nigeria. Tropenlandwirt, Beiheft, 1998, No. 65, pp. 143

4.03

no evidence

4.04

"It is also a good hedging plant, although not fully goat-proof: the young shoots serve as fodder. "

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

4.05

The seed oil is also edible, while the seed meal may be used as an animal feed. the young shoots serve as fodder.

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

4.06

AB: "A study was made of the life cycle and behaviour of Xystrocera festiva in plantations of Paraserianthes falcataria at 2 locations in South Sumatra, followed by laboratory investigations of its rearing. The pest was shown to have various hosts (Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis, A. arabica [A. nilotica], Pithecellobium jiringa, P. dulce, Samanea saman [Albizia saman] and Enterolobium cyclocalipum [E. cyclocarpum]). Attack on Paraserianthes falcataria usually began at 2-3 yr ol and increased with age. However, pest populations only increased slowly (0.1% p.a.), so serious damage could be avoided by cutting infected trees or other means of control. The laboratory life cycle (on an artificial diet) was 174 days, with the larval stage the longest (4 months). The use of integrated control methods is suggested." [a pest specialized on hosts from Mimosaceae but MANY species]

Suharti, M. Irianto, R. S. B. Santosa, S. (1994) Behaviour of the stem borer Xystrocera festiva Pascoe on Paraserianthes falcataria and integrated control. (Foreign Title: Perilaku hama penggerek batang sengon Xystrocera festiva Pascoe dan teknik pengendalian secara terpadu.) Buletin Penelitian Hutan, 1994, No. 558, pp. 39-53, 5 ref.

4.07

(1)" irritating sap - which can cause skin welts and eye irritations" (2)toxic sap that causes severe eye irritation and long-lasting welts on the skin.

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.daff.gov.au/content/output.cfm?ObjectID=D2C48F86-BA1A-11A1-A2200060B0A03969

4.08

This plant is fire-retardant

http://plantsdatabase.com/go/55957

4.09

"P. dulce is a strong light demander"

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.1

Soil and physiography
In its native range P. dulce grows on young superficial, often extremely rocky, shallow and skeletal soils, primarily of volcanic origin in areas where soils have often suffered severe abuse through slash and burn agriculture, desiccation and erosion. It is also found along river banks on alluvial soils and sands. It prefers well-drained soils but can grow on heavier clays, including black cotton vertisols. It is known to tolerate moderate salinity in areas with a high brackish water table (Luna, 1996).
P. dulce is thus extremely adaptable in terms of both its soil and climatic requirements.
Descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free; seasonally waterlogged
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral; alkaline
- Special soil tolerances: shallow; saline; infertile
- Soil types: alluvial soils; arenosols; arid soils; calcareous soils; clay soils; gravelly soils; limestone soils; saline soils; sandy soils; ultisols; vertisols

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

Shrub or small tree, up to 10 m tall

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

4.12

"its self-sown progeny create a thicket."

http://www.affa.gov.au/content/output.cfm?&OBJECTID=D2C48F86-BA1A-11A1-A2200060B0A03969

5.01

"In its native range P. dulce grows on young superficial, often extremely rocky, shallow and skeletal soils, primarily of volcanic origin in areas where soils have often suffered severe abuse through slash and burn agriculture, desiccation and erosion. It is also found along river banks on alluvial soils and sands."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.02

tree; Mimosaceae

5.03

"nitrogen-fixing tree"

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.04

tree

6.01

"It is thorny, produces abundant natural regeneration in many areas where introduced and planted, can spread quickly by bird dispersal of seeds, coppices rapidly after cutting or fire, and produces vigourous, very thorny root suckers triggered by injury to tree roots, a set of traits that mean it can invade pastures and other ruderal sites and can be difficult to kill once trees are established."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.02

"Pithecellobium dulce is usually propagated from seeds, which take about 2 weeks to germinate"

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

6.03

no evidence

6.04

no evidence

6.05

"Flowers are pollinated by a wide range of generalist insect pollinators, including large and small bees."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.06

"produces vigourous, very thorny root suckers triggered by injury to tree roots"

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.07

Trees start to flower and fruit at 4-8 years of age.

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.01

In South-East Asia Pithecellobium dulce is mainly grown as a hardy, easy-to-manage roadside tree. Pithecellobium dulce is a common roadside tree, in Indonesia particularly in towns, where it is pruned into a shapely avenue tree. [although it can be found along roadsides, the seeds and fruits are very large]]

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

7.02

In South-East Asia Pithecellobium dulce is mainly grown as a hardy, easy-to-manage roadside tree. Pithecellobium dulce is a common roadside tree, in Indonesia particularly in towns, where it is pruned into a shapely avenue tree.

Sunarjono, H.H. & Coronel, R.E., 2003. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.. [Internet] Record number 1534 from TEXTFILE On-line. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Tuesday, 18 May 2004.

7.03

"The fruits are distinctive in shape and colour being spirally curved or coiled into 1-2 circles, noticeably constricted between the seeds, and green tinged red, turning bright rose- or pillar-box red as they ripen and reddish brown after dehiscence. The unripe pods are fleshy becoming dry and papery after opening. The pods open along both sides to reveal 8-12 seeds which persist after the pods open attached by the fleshy white, pale pink or occasionally red, aril. The seeds are shiny black, plumply compressed lentiform, and 7-13 x 6-11 x 2-4 mm. There are 9,000-26,000 seeds/kg" [unlikely, relatively large sized fruit and seed]

7.04

"The fruits are distinctive in shape and colour being spirally curved or coiled into 1-2 circles, noticeably constricted between the seeds, and green tinged red, turning bright rose- or pillar-box red as they ripen and reddish brown after dehiscence. The unripe pods are fleshy becoming dry and papery after opening. The pods open along both sides to reveal 8-12 seeds which persist after the pods open attached by the fleshy white, pale pink or occasionally red, aril. The seeds are shiny black, plumply compressed lentiform, and 7-13 x 6-11 x 2-4 mm. There are 9,000-26,000 seeds/kg" [unlikely, fleshy fruit and large-sized seed]

7.05

"It is also found along river banks on alluvial soils and sands." [light weight aril may aid to the bouyancy of the seeds]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.06

"Seeds are dispersed by birds attracted by the red pods, and sweet fleshy white, pale-pink, or occasionally red arils which persist after the pods open. Local birds, such as the False Mynah bird in Hawaii (Degener, 1930), have adapted to disperse seeds of P. dulce in many areas where it is introduced aiding its spread and naturalization."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.07

aril could be attractive and promote dispersal externally

7.08

(1) "P. dulce seed is not as hard as many dry zone woody legumes." [althrough dispersed by birds, the seeds are large and soft -- many birds seem to extract the aril but do not eat the seed, don't know if it would survive through gut] (2)Seeds can be used for animal feed. [implies that they are digested]

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AC775E/AC775E04.htm

8.01

"The fruits are distinctive in shape and colour being spirally curved or coiled into 1-2 circles, noticeably constricted between the seeds, and green tinged red, turning bright rose- or pillar-box red as they ripen and reddish brown after dehiscence. The unripe pods are fleshy becoming dry and papery after opening. The pods open along both sides to reveal 8-12 seeds which persist after the pods open attached by the fleshy white, pale pink or occasionally red, aril. The seeds are shiny black, plumply compressed lentiform, and 7-13 x 6-11 x 2-4 mm. There are 9,000-26,000 seeds/kg" [unlikely, relatively large sized fruit and seed]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.02

"Although seeds are apparently orthodox and can be stored under normal seed storage conditions (<10% moisture content and <+4 degree C), for periods of at least 6 months, the seedcoat of P. dulce seed is not as hard as many dry zone woody legumes and it is unlikely that seed can be stored without loss of viability over longer periods (Parrotta 1991; Luna, 1996). The softer seedcoat also means that no pretreatment is required, (Shelton, 1994), seeds germinate within 1-2 days and germination of 20-70% can be expected. Hot water pretreatments have been found to be detrimental (Luna, 1996)."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.03

Chemical: Larger trees can be cut and the stumps treated with glyphosate to prevent resprouting. Foliar and basal herbicide treatment may be effective on smaller trees and seedlings. "Probably sensitive to foliar application of triclopyr. Sensitive to cut-surface and basal bark applications of triclopyr and to soil applications of bromacil, hexazinone or tebuthiuron. Sensitive to basal bark applications of 2% triclopyr ester in diesel or to 20% in low volume applications." (Motooka et al., 2002)

http://www.hear.org/pier/species/pithecellobium_dulce.htm

8.04

(1)"coppices rapidly after cutting or fire" (2)withstands heavy grazing or cutting.

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.daff.gov.au/content/output.cfm?ObjectID=D2C48F86-BA1A-11A1-A2200060B0A03969

8.05

In Hawaii the fruits and seeds are susceptible to attack by larvae of Subpandesma ansya

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.