Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Pinus elliottii


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Evaluate, score: 2


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.

Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Pinus elliottii; slash pine [NOT var. densa]

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

n

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

7

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

n

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

2

Supporting data:

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

The naturalized range of P. elliottii has been extended by planting into northern Alabama, Georgia, and southern Tennessee. Its western range now includes western Louisiana and eastern Texas. It regenerates well naturally in these areas.

1.03

no evidence

2.01

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.streetside.com/plants/floridata/ref/p/pinus_e.htm

Review of natural distribution
The range of P. elliottii var. elliottii extends over 8° latitude and 10° longitude. The latitude covered in the southeastern USA ranges from 27° to 35°N. P. elliottii var. densa occurs only in the southern portion of Florida. The naturalized range of P. elliottii has been extended by planting into northern Alabama, Georgia, and southern Tennessee. Its western range now includes western Louisiana and eastern Texas. It regenerates well naturally in these areas. (2)Native to the southeastern coastal plain of the United States from South Carolina to Louisiana, down to the Florida Keys.

2.02

2.03

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST463 (2)http://web.fccj.org/~dbyres/slash/slash.htm (3)http://newcrop.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pinus_elliottii.html

(1)USDA hardiness zones: 7A through 11 (2)Lowland to upland forests and old fields. (3)Ranging from Warm Temperate through Subtropical Moist Forest Life

2.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Review of natural distribution
The range of P. elliottii var. elliottii extends over 8° latitude and 10° longitude. The latitude covered in the southeastern USA ranges from 27° to 35°N. [P. elliottii var. densa ONLY occurs naturalized in subtropical areas]

2.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Location of introductions
P. elliottii has been introduced into many countries for timber production. Large scale introductions have occurred in Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, China, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. In most of these situations, P. elliottii is an adequate seed producer and natural or artificial regeneration continues.

3.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

The naturalized range of P. elliottii has been extended by planting into northern Alabama, Georgia, and southern Tennessee. Its western range now includes western Louisiana and eastern Texas. It regenerates well naturally in these areas.

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

Swarbrick, J. T. (1984) Pines as weeds of south-eastern coastal Queensland pastures and heathland. Australian Weeds, 1984, Vol.3, No.4, p.156, 3 ref.

AB: Infestations of Pinus elliotii and P. radiata along the most infertile sandy soils of coastal SE Queensland are discussed. Most infestations are traceable to trees planted as avenues or windbreaks. Infestation results in further degradation of pasture and heathlands.

3.05

Richardson, D. M.; Macdonald, I. A. W.; Forsyth, G. G. (1989) Reductions in plant species richness under stands of alien trees and shrubs in the fynbos biome. South African Forestry Journal, 1989, No.149, pp.1-8, 33 ref.

Pinus pinaster was considered as an invasive speies and suggested to be cleared.

4.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Inflorescences, flowers and fruits
P. elliottii is monoecious and wind pollinated. The cones are 10 to 15 cm in length, ovoid-conic, and sessile. They usually persist on the tree until the following summer. Cones are reddish brown, lustrous, and are armed with a sharp spine. The seeds are about 0.6 cm long, dark brown mottled with black, with wings about 2.5 cm long that are thin and translucent. [only cones with spine]

4.02

no evidence

4.03

no evidence

4.04

Mitchell, W. A. (1981) Evaluation of white-tailed deer and cattle diets in two southeastern pine forests. Dissertation Abstracts International, B, 1981, Vol.41, No.11, p.3952

AB: The food habits of Odocoileus virginiana and cattle were studied in (a) the Leaf River wildlife management area in Pinus palustris/P. elliottii forest of SE Mississippi and (b) the Tallahala wildlife management area in the P. taeda/P. echinata/hardwood forests of central Mississippi. Browse, mast and fungi were major components of deer diet. Pinus spp. were heavily utilized in winter and spring and mast during summer and winter.

4.05

no evidence

4.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Reproduction weevils, the pales weevil (Hylobius pales) and the pitch-eating weevil (Pachylobius picivorus) are attracted by the odour of pine resin to recently logged areas where they lay their eggs in lateral roots of fresh pine stumps. Both the egg-laying adults and the emerging brood feed on the tender bark of seedlings. This damage can be avoided by delaying planting of cutover areas for at least 9 months or by treating seedlings with a suitable insecticide (Drooz, 1985).
Older stands are subject to attack by engraver beetles (Ips spp.), the black turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus terebrans), and the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis). Outbreaks of these insects are usually associated with wildfire, lightning strikes, and logging operations. The best protection against attack is to maintain vigorous, healthy stands through good forest management (Drooz, 1985). Control is mainly by salvage and rapid removal of infested trees before new adults emerge from brood trees.
Fusiform rust (Cronartium fus

4.07

no evidence

4.08

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Fire is both an agent of destruction and a valuable tool in the management of P. elliottii. Young trees are quite susceptible to injury by fire until they are 3.0 to 4.6 m tall and have bark thick enough to insulate the cambium from lethal temperatures (Gruschow, 1952; McCulley, 1950). Even mature stands may be damaged by head fires in areas with large fuel accumulations. The principal uses of fire in P. elliottii management are for site preparation, hazard reduction, and control of understorey vegetation. Fire also improves forage production for livestock and habitat for wildlife.

4.09

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST463

(1)Silvicultural characteristics
P. elliottii is a subclimax species that without human intervention and with the absence of fire or other catastrophic event will proceed to a mixed hardwood forest. It is considered intermediate in tolerance to shade by some authors and intolerant by others. It will reproduce naturally in small openings and will invade poorly stocked Pinus palustris stands. However, competition from overstorey and understorey vegetation reduces growth and causes mortality. (2)Light requirement: full sun, partial sun or partial shade

4.1

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST464

(1)Soil and physiography
Soils within the range of P. elliottii are mostly Spodosols, Ultisols, and Entisols. Topography varies little throughout the southeastern Coastal Plain, but small changes in elevation frequently coincide with abrupt changes in soil and site conditions.
Although P. elliottii adapts to a wide variety of soil conditions, it grows best on deep, well-aerated soils that supply ample quantities of moisture during the growing season. Generally, growth and site index increase with depth to a restrictive soil layer or seasonally high water table if these features occur within 50 to 75 cm of the soil surface. Where depth to a restrictive layer exceeds about 75 cm, site index declines with increasing depth to a reliable source of moisture, such as a stable water table or a soil horizon with a large moisture storage capacity. Soil properties useful in estimating site index of P. elliottii include depth to grey mottles, depth to a spodic horizon, depth to the least permeable layer or to a fine text

4.11

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Habit
P. elliottii var. elliottii is characterized by a long, clear bole. Self pruning of the branches is common and this results in a relatively short crown. P. elliottii var. densa differs in a number of ways (Little and Dorman, 1954). Its seedlings go through a dwarf 'grass stage' similar to longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). The stem divides into large spreading branches forming a flat-topped or rounded crown. It also occurs on dry sites, either sandy flat lands or limestone outcrops. There has been little research into the silviculture and management of this variety. Almost all information available relates to P. elliottii var. elliottii.
Size
P. elliottii var. elliottii varies from 18 to 30 m in height and averages about 0.6 m in diameter. Large trees are sometimes 36 m tall and 0.9 m in diameter.

4.12

no evidence

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

pine tree

5.03

no evidence

5.04

pine tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Silvicultural practice
Cones and seeds
"Seed viability is usually good, and field germination may be rapid when soil moisture is adequate."

6.03

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.forests.qld.gov.au/forind/forestry/qldhybrid.htm

(1)Hybrids
P. elliottii var. elliottii crosses naturally with P. elliottii var. densa where their ranges meet and introgression has occurred among trees in the transition zone to the degree that it is difficult to distinguish between the two varieties (Squillace, 1966).
In areas where the natural distribution of P. elliottii overlaps that of the other pines, natural hybridization is usually precluded by phenology. Late flowering sand pine (Pinus clausa) or early flowering longleaf pine (P. palustris) may hydridize with P. elliottii. Successful artificial hybridization depends on the choice of the female parent species as well as the particular individual of the species (Lohrey and Kossuth, 1990). These has been more successful sound seed produced in the P. elliottii x P. palustris cross than in the reciprocal, and no sound seeds were obtained in the P. clausa x P. elliottii cross.
P. elliottii has been artificially crossed with longleaf (P. palustris), loblolly (P. taeda), shortleaf (P. echinata), pitch (P. r

6.04

Squillace, A. E.; Goddard, R. E. 1982. Selfing in clonal seed orchards of slash pine. Forest Science 28 :71-78

[very low rate with high inbreeding depression, unlikely survival] The frequency of viable self-fertilized seeds resulting from wind pollination was estimated using 12 marker genes in 8 orchards in the southern USA over 5 yr. Frequencies averaged 2.5% but varied greatly among orchards and years. The frequency of total self-fertilized seed (viable and non-viable) was estimated from controlled self- and cross-pollinations: this averaged 9.5%. Significantly more selfing occurred in lower than in upper crowns. Emasculation of a portion of the ramets suggested that selfing was greater within than between ramets of the same clone. From authors' summary.

6.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Inflorescences, flowers and fruits:

P. elliottii is monoecious and wind pollinated.

6.06

no evidence

6.07

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Trees may reach seed-bearing age in 7 to 8 years, but do not reach their reproductive capacity until many years later.

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"P. elliottii var. elliottii is an important timber species native to the lower coastal plain within the southeastern USA. Because of its rapid early growth and its production of highly valuable wood products, it has been widely introduced into other countries. As an exotic, it is used in Africa, especially in southern Africa, and in Australia and South America for various products ranging from lumber to pulpwood. In Brazil, it makes an important contribution to the resin production industry."

7.03

no evidence

7.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"The seeds are about 0.6 cm long, dark brown mottled with black, with wings about 2.5 cm long that are thin and translucent."; " P. elliottii cones mature during September and shed most of their seeds in October. More than 90% of the seeds fall within 48 m of their source, but some may be carried by wind as for as 75 m."

7.05

no evidence

7.06

no evidence

7.07

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST463 (2)http://www.arborday.com/treeguide/nitree.cfm?id=117

(1)Squirrels are particularly fond of the seeds, as they chew open the cones (2)Slash pine seeds are important food for wild turkeys

7.08

8.01

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) Powell, G. L.; White, T. L. (1994) Cone and seed yields from slash pine seed orchards. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry, 1994, Vol.18, No.3, pp.122-127, 21 ref.

(1) "There are 21,160 to 41,550 seeds/kg and the average is about 29,760 seeds/kg (Krugman SL, Jenkinson JL, 1974. Pinus L. Pine. In: Schopmeyer, ed. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Washington, DC, USA: USDA, 598-638.)."
(2) AB: A slash pine (Pinus elliottii ) seed orchard management recording system (SOMRS) was initiated in 1985 to quantify cone and seed yields of orchards in the Cooperative Forest Genetics Research Program (CFGRP). Historical data were obtained from CFGRP slash pine seed orchards. Cultural treatments and production yield data have been collected annually since 1985 from seed orchards throughout Florida, Georgia and Alabama. Most of these orchards are intensively managed for seed production, including the use of fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides. During 1980-90, the average yield from mature (>14 yr old) orchards was 25.1 bushels of cones and 27.3 lb seed/acre. On the basis of pounds per acre, orchards reached 50 and 90% of full production at

8.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

(1)Seed viability is usually good, and field germination may be rapid when soil moisture is adequate. However, germination normally occurs over an extended period from November to April. Seedling survival may be increased several fold by prescribed burning or by any type of scarification that exposes mineral soil prior to seedfall. Unprotected seeds are eaten by birds and small mammals and by a variety of insects. When direct seeding, repellent coatings are used to protect seeds from these predators (Derr and Mann, 1971). Insects, rabbits, and other animals also clip young seedlings, especially in late winter and early spring when other green vegetation is scarce. Those seeds kept in cold storage for a year or more benefit from stratification or cold prechilling. For storage, seeds should be dried to 7-10% moisture content and held at sub-freezing temperatures. P. elliottii seeds store well with good germination being maintained after 50 years of cold storage (Barnett and Vozzo, 1985). (2)Seed is stored using

8.03

South, D. B. 2000. Tolerance of Southern pine seedlings to clopyralid. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 24:.51-56.

[pines are tolerant of most herbicides] Tolerance of three pine species - loblolly pine (Pinus taeda ), slash pine (P. elliottii var. elliottii ) and longleaf pine (P. palustris ) - to post-emergence applications of the herbicide clopyralid was examined at ten nurseries located in four southern states (Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina and Louisiana) in the USA over a 2-year period. The herbicide was applied at various times during May, June, and July. At time of lifting, seedling morphology was evaluated (root-collar diameter, shoot height, root dry weight, and shoot dry weight). All three pine species were tolerant of between 210 and 840 g acid equivalent (ae)/ha clopyralid. However, epinasty was occasionally observed on both loblolly pine and slash pine. The injury symptoms were ephemeral, and seedlings appeared normal 3 months after treatment. Results from these tests suggest that some pine species are tolerant to this herbicide at the seedling stage. As a result of this research, this herbicide can b

8.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Fire is both an agent of destruction and a valuable tool in the management of P. elliottii. Young trees are quite susceptible to injury by fire until they are 3.0 to 4.6 m tall and have bark thick enough to insulate the cambium from lethal temperatures (Gruschow, 1952; McCulley, 1950). Even mature stands may be damaged by head fires in areas with large fuel accumulations. The principal uses of fire in P. elliottii management are for site preparation, hazard reduction, and control of understorey vegetation. Fire also improves forage production for livestock and habitat for wildlife.

8.05

no evidence


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