Paulownia kawakamii T. Itô Family - Scrophulariaceae. Common Names(s) - kawakami paulownia, Taiwan pao tong, Huang mao pao tong, Shui tong mu, paulownia wood. Synonym(s) - Paulownia rehderiana Hand.-Mazz., Paulownia thyrsoidea Rehd., Paulownia viscosa Hand.-Mazz.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

-2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

1

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

2 or 3

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

0

Notes

Source

1.01

(1) " P. kawakamii has a relatively slow growth rate in comparison with other Paulownia species. Due to its inferior stem form and slow growth, this species is generally not used in plantations. However, P. kawakamii is used in plant breeding programmes to create fast-growing hybrids with resistance to certain pests and diseases." [no evidence of domestication to reduce invasive characteristics]

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1) Native to: Asia - Temperate: China - Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang; Taiwan. (2) Geographic distribution - latitude between 35˚N and 22˚N.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?458483 [Cited 2009 December 1]. (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

(1) Native to: Asia - Temperate: China - Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang; Taiwan. (2) Geographic distribution - latitude between 35˚N and 22˚N.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?458483 [Cited 2009 December 1]. (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.03

(1) Altitude range: 1200 -2400 m. Mean annual rainfall: 2000-3000 mm. Mean annual temperature 14 -23 ˚C. (2) Scrub, forests, wastelands; 200-1500 m. Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Taiwan, Zhejiang.

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.04

(1) Native to: Asia - Temperate: China - Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang; Taiwan. (2) Geographic distribution - latitude between 35˚N and 22˚N. [range is marginally within the subtropical zone.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?458483 [Cited 2009 December 1]. (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.05

(1) P. kawakamii is planted in South Africa." P. kawakamii has a relatively slow growth rate in comparison with other Paulownia species. Due to its inferior stem form and slow growth, this species is generally not used in plantations. However, P. kawakamii is used in plant breeding programmes to create fast-growing hybrids with resistance to certain pests and diseases." (2) "There are several species of Paulownia - Paulownia elongata, Paulownia kawakamii, and Paulownia tomentosa, all native to China, and have been planted in the US for many years." (3) "Paulownia was introduced into the USA in the 1800’s where it flourished after the accidental release of Paulownia seeds into the wild from packaging material for Chinese dinner wear." [exact species is not mentioned].

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) http://www.cdr3.com/empress/ [Cited 2009 December 4]. (3) http://www.afbini.gov.uk/afbi_paulownia.pdf [Cited 2009 December 4].

3.01

No evidence.

3.02

(1) No evidence.

(1) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/paulownia_kawakamii/ [Cited 2009 December 3].

3.03

(1) No evidence.

(1) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/paulownia_kawakamii/ [Cited 2009 December 3].

3.04

(1) Listed as an environmental weed in Sydney, but no evidence of control or impacts in the literature.

(1) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/paulownia_kawakamii/ [Cited 2009 December 3].

3.05

(1) Paulownia tomentosa is invading burned areas, roadways and other areas of intense human disturbance in the southern Appalachians. (2) Paulownia tomentosa "is an aggressive ornamental tree that grows rapidly in disturbed natural areas, including forests, streambanks, and steep rocky slopes."

(1) http://cee.unc.edu/theses/Kupp_PhD.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pato1.htm [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.01

(1) Trees, 6-12 m tall; crown umbellate. Trunk short. Young shoot brown-gray, conspicuously lenticellate. Leaf blade cordate, to 8 cm, viscid-glandular hairy, margin entire or 3-5-lobed or angled, apex acute. Thyrses broadly conical, to 1 m; cymes often 3-flowered, yellow-brown tomentose; peduncle absent or less than 1.2 cm. Pedicel to 1.2 cm. Calyx conspicuously ridged, tomentose; lobes longer than 1/2 of calyx length, narrowly ovate, conspicuously green margined, apex acute. Corolla pale violet to blue-purple, subcampanulate, 3-5 X 3-4 cm, outside glandular hairy. Stamens 1-1.5 cm. Ovary glandular. Style ca. 1.4 cm. Capsule ovoid, 2.5-4 cm, apex short beaked; pericarp less than 1 mm; persistent calyx radiate, lobes often strongly reflexed. Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. Fl. Apr-May, fr. Aug-Sep.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.02

Unknown (1) Paulownia kawakamii is used in agroforestry; shelterbelts; and as an ornamental.

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.03

(1) Not parasitic.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.04

(1) Used as a fodder and green manures.(2) "The leaves can be used for animal fodder. In China, after one year’s growth when Paulownia was cut down, the leaves were offered to pigs and sheep. Paulownia leaves are reported to have a similar feeding value to lucerne and are suitable for combining with wheat straw or hay for feeding to cattle, sheep or goats."

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) http://www.afbini.gov.uk/afbi_paulownia.pdf [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.05

(1) Used as a fodder and green manures.(2) "The leaves can be used for animal fodder. In China, after one year’s growth when Paulownia was cut down, the leaves were offered to pigs and sheep. Paulownia leaves are reported to have a similar feeding value to lucerne and are suitable for combining with wheat straw or hay for feeding to cattle, sheep or goats."

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) http://www.afbini.gov.uk/afbi_paulownia.pdf [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.06

(1) Pests recorded on P. kawakamii, Fungus diseases: Fusarium oxysporum (causes anthracnose disease), Meloidogyne (root knot nematodes), Sphaceloma tsugii, Thanatephorus cucumeris; Phytoplasmas: paulownia witches' broom phytoplasma, Witches' broom disease. Pests recorded at the generic level (Paulownia):
Insects:
Diaspidiotus perniciosus (San José scale)
Eumeta variegata
Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (mulberry scale)
Fungus diseases:
Botryosphaeria dothidea (canker: almond)
Pythium myriotylum (brown rot of groundnut)
Pythium splendens
Pests recorded at the family level (Scrophulariaceae):
Fungus diseases:
Cronartium coleosporioides (pine cow wheat rust)

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.07

(1) P. kawakamii is used as a medicinal. (2) Paulownia spp. are used for a variety of medicinal purposes.

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) http://www.afbini.gov.uk/afbi_paulownia.pdf [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.08

Unknown

4.09

(1) "Although Paulownia spp. mature rapidly, by the time an individual reaches maturity, the growth of more shade tolerant species beneath it usually precludes the establishment of further individuals in the absence of additional disturbance. (2) "Full sun is best." (3) Grow best in full sun.

(1) http://cee.unc.edu/theses/Kupp_PhD.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.dragontrees.com/dragonhi.html [Cited 2009 December 3]. (3) http://www.cdr3.com/empress/ [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.10

(1) Soil conditions: well drained is best, light to heavy clay is ok. Soil pH: 5.5 to 8.5 ( 6.5 is the optimum pH level). (2) Members of the genus Paulownia grow in a weiil-drained soil wit a pH of 6-8. (3) Soil descriptors: medium texture; acid, neutral

(1) http://www.dragontrees.com/dragonhi.html [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.invasive.org/weeds/asian/paulownia.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (3) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 

4.11

(1) Trees, 6-12 m tall; crown umbellate. Trunk short. Young shoot brown-gray, conspicuously lenticellate. Leaf blade cordate, to 8 cm, viscid-glandular hairy, margin entire or 3-5-lobed or angled, apex acute. Thyrses broadly conical, to 1 m; cymes often 3-flowered, yellow-brown tomentose; peduncle absent or less than 1.2 cm. Pedicel to 1.2 cm. Calyx conspicuously ridged, tomentose; lobes longer than 1/2 of calyx length, narrowly ovate, conspicuously green margined, apex acute. Corolla pale violet to blue-purple, subcampanulate, 3-5 X 3-4 cm, outside glandular hairy. Stamens 1-1.5 cm. Ovary glandular. Style ca. 1.4 cm. Capsule ovoid, 2.5-4 cm, apex short beaked; pericarp less than 1 mm; persistent calyx radiate, lobes often strongly reflexed. Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. Fl. Apr-May, fr. Aug-Sep.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

4.12

Unknown

5.01

(1) Trees, 6-12 m tall; crown umbellate. Trunk short. Young shoot brown-gray, conspicuously lenticellate. Leaf blade cordate, to 8 cm, viscid-glandular hairy, margin entire or 3-5-lobed or angled, apex acute. Thyrses broadly conical, to 1 m; cymes often 3-flowered, yellow-brown tomentose; peduncle absent or less than 1.2 cm. Pedicel to 1.2 cm. Calyx conspicuously ridged, tomentose; lobes longer than 1/2 of calyx length, narrowly ovate, conspicuously green margined, apex acute. Corolla pale violet to blue-purple, subcampanulate, 3-5 X 3-4 cm, outside glandular hairy. Stamens 1-1.5 cm. Ovary glandular. Style ca. 1.4 cm. Capsule ovoid, 2.5-4 cm, apex short beaked; pericarp less than 1 mm; persistent calyx radiate, lobes often strongly reflexed. Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. Fl. Apr-May, fr. Aug-Sep.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

5.02

(1) Scrophulariaceae.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

5.03

(1) Scrophulariaceae.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

5.04

(1) Trees, 6-12 m tall; crown umbellate. Trunk short. Young shoot brown-gray, conspicuously lenticellate. Leaf blade cordate, to 8 cm, viscid-glandular hairy, margin entire or 3-5-lobed or angled, apex acute. Thyrses broadly conical, to 1 m; cymes often 3-flowered, yellow-brown tomentose; peduncle absent or less than 1.2 cm. Pedicel to 1.2 cm. Calyx conspicuously ridged, tomentose; lobes longer than 1/2 of calyx length, narrowly ovate, conspicuously green margined, apex acute. Corolla pale violet to blue-purple, subcampanulate, 3-5 X 3-4 cm, outside glandular hairy. Stamens 1-1.5 cm. Ovary glandular. Style ca. 1.4 cm. Capsule ovoid, 2.5-4 cm, apex short beaked; pericarp less than 1 mm; persistent calyx radiate, lobes often strongly reflexed. Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. Fl. Apr-May, fr. Aug-Sep.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

6.01

No evidence.

6.02

(1) Paulownia kawakamii seeds were germinated in a nursery experiment to evaluate the possibility of introducing P. Kawakamii to Nepal. Seed germination was successful in all three treatments: control, 1% sulphuric acid, and an hour at 40°C

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3].

6.03

(1) "In China, the approach to breeding envisaged is controlled pollination (in particular interspecific hybridization) and then clonal testing (Chinese Acad. For. 1986). Selection criteria are height (to minimize shading of crops) and freedom from the many diseases and pests. Planting stock currently used comprises selected clones of some good hybrids. The North American breeding programme is at the species and provenance evaluation stage (NCSU-Industry Hardwood Research Co-op. 1990)." (2) Paulownia kawakamii and Paulownia fortunei are the parent species of Paulownia taiwaniana through natural hybridization.

(1) http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/T2114E/T2114E03.htm [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=A5R37cjTgPMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA91&dq=Paulownia+kawakamii+%2B+%22
dispersal%22&ots=l30o5eU3K9&sig=QoAIhhm5d_Lx29UGq4Qaka1_St4#v=onepage&q=Paulownia&f=false [Cited 2009 December 3].

6.04

Unknown

6.05

(1) Paulownia tomentosa has insect pollinated flowers. (2) Paulownia kawakamii is most likely pollinated by insects. [based on flower morphology].

(1) http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pato1.htm [Cited 2009 December 4]. (2) http://www.yorkseed.com/catalog/images/Paulowina-Kawa-1.jpg [Cited 2009 December 4]

6.06

(1) Vegetative propagation by cuttings; grafting; tissue culture. "Ability to regenerate rapidly; coppice"

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.07

(1) Paulownia kawakamii usually flowers the second year after planting. (2) Blossoms the second or third year. (3)" P. kawakamii has a relatively slow growth rate in comparison with other Paulownia species."

(1) http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/T2114E/T2114E03.htm [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.dragontrees.com/dragonhi.html [Cited 2009 December 3].(3) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 

7.01

Unknown (1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. [no evidence available on unintentional dispersal].

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

7.02

(1) Paulownia kawakamii is used in agroforestry; shelterbelts; and as an ornamental.

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

(1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing.

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

7.04

(1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing.

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

7.05

Unknown (1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. (3) Paulownia tomentosa is dispersed by water.

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4]. (3) http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pato1.htm [Cited 2009 December 4].

7.06

(1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing.

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

7.07

(1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. [no extern means of attachment].

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

7.08

(1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing.

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4].

8.01

(1) Paulownia kawakamii seed is tiny (0.56 million/kg). (2) Seeds oblong, 3-4 mm including wing. (3) The fruit of Paulownia tomentosa is a dry brown capsule with four compartments that may contain several thousand tiny winged seeds. (4) The fruits of the genus Paulownia are loculicidal capsules containing thousands of seeds.

(1) http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/33749/1.%20Rayachhetry%20et%20al%201988%20Banko%20
Jankari.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200020798 [Cited 2009 December 4]. (3) http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pato1.htm [Cited 2009 December 4]. (4) http://books.google.com/books?id=ZF2B2rce0EEC&pg=PA271&dq=Paulownia+kawakamii#v=onepage&q=Paulownia%20kawakamii&f=false [Cited 2009 December 4].

8.02

(1) Seed storage orthodox. [unknown if a persistent seed bank is formed in a natural setting].

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.03

(1) "Do not use any form of insecticide or weed-killer anywhere near your tree. All Paulownia trees are highly sensitive to poisons and will die or be severely damaged if exposed to them."

(1) http://www.dragontrees.com/dragonhi.html [Cited 2009 December 4].

8.04

(1) Paulownia tomentosa is able to invade areas in the southern Appalachia after fires. (2) "Ability to regenerate rapidly; coppice"

(1) http://cee.unc.edu/theses/Kupp_PhD.pdf [Cited 2009 December 3]. (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.05

Unknown