Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Flemingia macrophylla

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

n

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

4

Source

Notes

1.01

Did not find any evidence on the species being domesticated.

1.02

Flemingia is native to Asia, but is considered naturalized in Sub-Saharan Africa

Asare, F-O., Y. Shebu and E.A. Agishi. 1984. Preliminary studies on indigenous species for dry season grazing in the NorthernGuinea Savanna Zone of Nigeria. Trop. Grass. 18(3), p. 148-152.

1.03

Did not find any evidence that the species has weedy varieties, cultivars or subspecies.

2.01

The species is native to India, Sri Lanka, China and S E Asia.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

2.03

Altitude range: 0 - 2400 m. Different regimes of rainfall are tolerated, even if the dry season duration is 6 months.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.04

Native to India, Sri Lanka China and South East Asia.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.05

The species has been introduced to many countries.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.01

Flemingia is native to Asia, but is considered naturalized in Sub-Saharan Africa

Asare, F-O., Y. Shebu and E.A. Agishi. 1984. Preliminary studies on indigenous species for dry season grazing in the NorthernGuinea Savanna Zone of Nigeria. Trop. Grass. 18(3), p. 148-152.

3.02

Did not find any evidence that the species is a garden weed.

3.03

Did not find any evidence that the species is an agricultural pest.

3.04

Did not find any evidence that the species is an environmental weed.

3.05

No evidence that it is or has a congeneric weed.

4.01

The species does not have any thorns, burrs or spines.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.02

'It can therefore be assumed that F. macrophylla and A. bateri have no allelopathic effect on maize.'

Hauser S. 1993. Effect of …F. macrophylla … on casava. Agrivulture, Ecosystems and Environment. V 45: 263-273

4.03

No evidence that the species is parasitic.

4.04

"F. macrophylla is used as fodder since its leaves and seeds have a high protein content (Chen et al., 1993).'

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.05

No information

4.06

Flemingia is an off-season host for the podfly, Melanagromyza obtusa, an important pest of pigeonpea, but this is not a significant crop in the Pacific

Int. Pigeonpea Newsletter. 1985. A survey for offseason survival of pigeonpea podfly around Pantnagar, India. 4:53-54.

4.07

no reports

4.08

No information.

4.09

Full overhead light is necessary for vigorous growth, however, this species will survive in light shade. 'A qualitative evaluation trial in a pine plantation in Costa Rica indicated that flemingia was one of several species worthy of further study as a shade tolerant forage legume for silvopastures (Razill 1987)

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Razill, Y.A.E. 1987. Evaluation of tropical forage legumes under Pinas caribea var. Hondurensis in Costa Rica, Turrialba. Agrof. Syst. 5:97-108.

4.1

This species may tolerate a diverse range of soils,…Keoghan (1987)  reports that in Indonesia it has outstanding adaptation to acid (pH 4.6) and infertile sods'

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

The species is a tree and not a vine. No evidence that it has a smothering habit.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.12

No evidence that it forms dense thickets or monocultures.

5.01

5.02

5.03

'F. macrophylla is a woody, tussock-forming shrub …'. 'Its nitrogen fixing ability results in soil improvement, and the extensive root system aid soil conservation.'

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.04

6.01

No evidence.

6.02

No evidence regarding non-viability.

6.03

No information

6.04

'Seed should not have been collected from isolated trees because they may have been self-pollinated or pollinated by only a few individuals.' Although not a strong direct evidence this suggests that the species may be self compatible.

http://www.winrock.org/FORESTRY/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS13.html

6.05

Inflorescences dense spike-like racemes; calyx 0.7-1.3 cm long; corolla white to pink or yellowish. The color and shape suggest that it probably is not pollinated by specialists. No direct evidence found.

http://www.hear.org/pier/flmac.htm

6.06

Propagation is by seed.

http://www.hear.org/pier/flmac.htm

6.07

Flemingia produces flowers and seed within 6-7 months.

http://www.winrock.org/FORESTRY/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS13.html

7.01

The propagules do not have any means of attaching and hence it is less likely to be dispersed unintentionally.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.02

The species is not known to be valued as an ornamental or for its fruits and hence it is less likely to be intentionally introduced by people.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

The seeds are about 4-5 x 2 mm and the species is not a major horticultural or forestry species and hence the seeds are less likely to be introduced as a produce contaminant.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.04

At maturity, the pods turn brown and split, discharging their seeds.

http://www.winrock.org/FORESTRY/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS13.html

7.05

7.06

Fruit is a dehiscent 2 seeded pod probably not adapted for bird dispersal.

7.07

The propagules do not have any means of attaching and hence less likely to be dispersed externally by animals.

7.08

No direct evidence. The fruit is not bird dispersed and no evidence of animal dispersal.

8.01

The small pods generally contain only two seeds

http://www.winrock.org/FORESTRY/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS13.html

8.02

The seed of flemingia is hard and small. For cultivation purposes they need to be treated in order to facilitate germination. This suggests that probably the seeds may be able to form a seed bank.

http://www.winrock.org/FORESTRY/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS13.html

8.03

No evidence regarding the use of herbicides for this species.

8.04

'F. macrophylla has an excellent coppicing capacity, … '. 'F. macrophylla has the ability to sprout vigorously after coppicing.'

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.05

Did not find any evidence on biocontrol being introduced to control for this species.