Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Ficus benjamina; weeping fig

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

n

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

y

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

4

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

http://www.fnps.org/dade/pubs/PlantsToAvoid.html

Miami Dade county occurs on Pine Rocklands, Hammocks

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range: Aproximate limits north to south: 30N to 30S
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China (Hainan, Yunnan); India (Assam); Indochina; Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Sulawesi, Sumatra); Laos; Malaysia(Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak); Philippines; Thailand; Vietnam
Africa: Egypt;
Oceania: Papua New Guinea; Solomon Islands

2.02

2.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Climate descriptors
- Altitude range: 0 - 1400 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 450 - 3600 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; winter; bimodal; uniform
- Dry season duration: 0 - 6 months
- Mean annual temperature: 12 - 42C
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 28 - 49C
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 9 - 20C
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 4C

2.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range: Aproximate limits north to south: 30N to 30S
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China (Hainan, Yunnan); India (Assam); Indochina; Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Sulawesi, Sumatra); Laos; Malaysia(Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak); Philippines; Thailand; Vietnam
Africa: Egypt;
Oceania: Papua New Guinea; Solomon Islands

2.05

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

List of countries where planted
Europe: Belgium; Netherlands; Sweden
Asia: Indonesia (Java); Iran; Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak); Pakistan; Philippines; Thailand
North America: USA(Florida)
South America: Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo)
Oceania: Australia (New South Wales)

3.01

Note: listing on http://www.fnps.org/dade/pubs/PlantsToAvoid.html was apparently an error. Does not appear on updated list. Not listed as naturalized in Florida by Long and Lakela A Tropical Flora of Florida.

3.02

no vidence

3.03

no vidence

3.04

http://www.co.miami-dade.fl.us/derm/badplants.htm

1) Was on Miami Dade county list of "plants to avoid" but was taken off the list in the most updated version (reference cited here). Not on 1999 or 2001 FLEPPC list. 

3.05

(1) Weeds in New Zealand (http://www.boprc.govt.nz/www/green/weedindx.htm) contact: norb@kcbbs.gen.nz
(2)Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. FLEPPC 1999 List of Florida's Most Invasive Species. Internet: http://www.fau.edu/envsci/99list.htm

(1) F. pumila and F. rubiginosa are prohibited from propagation, sale and distribution in New Zealand.
(2) F. microcarpa was listed in Category I—(Species that are invading and disrupting native plant communities in Florida. This definition does not rely on the economic severity or geographic range of the problem, but on the documented ecological damage caused. ) F. altissma was listed in Category II—Species that have shown a potential to disrupt native plant communities. These species may become ranked as Category I, but have not yet demonstrated disruption of natural Florida communities.

4.01

smooth tree

4.02

no evidence

4.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benjamina is a large strangling fig with an umbrella-shaped, graceful crown and few or no aerial roots. It is grown for ornamental purposes and is therefore found in many countries outside its natural range;

4.04

4.05

no evidnce

4.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Insect pests:
Pachylia syces [1]
Bacterial diseases:
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
footnotes:1. Moth

4.07

(1) Kanerva, L.; Estlander, T.; Petman, L.; Mäkinen-Kiljunen, S. (2001) Occupational allergic contact urticaria to yucca (Yucca aloifolia ), weeping fig (Ficus benjamina ), and spathe flower (Spathiphyllum wallisii ). Allergy (Copenhagen), 2001, Vol.56, No.10, pp.1008-1011, 27 ref.
(2)Greef, J. M. de; Lieutier-Colas, F.; Bessot, J. C.; Vérot, A.; Gallerand, A. M.; Pauli, G.; Blay, F. de (2001) Urticaria and rhinitis to shrubs of Ficus benjamina and breadfruit in a banana-allergic road worker: evidence for a cross-sensitization between Moracea, banana and latex. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 2001, Vol.125, No.2, pp.182-184, 6 ref.
(3)Chen ZhiPing; Düser, M.; Flagge, A.; Maryska, S.; Sander, I.; Raulf-Heimsoth, M.; Baur, X. (2000) Identification and characterization of cross-reactive natural rubber latex and Ficus benjamina allergens. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 2000, Vol.123, No.4, pp.291-298, 23 ref. 4)Axelsson-Igk 1995. Allergy to Ficus benjamina (weeping fig

(1) AB: "Occupational contact urticaria (CU) from plants is often reported, but it is less often attributed to decorative houseplants. We present an atopic gardener and caretaker of plants who developed CU when occupationally exposed to weeping fig, spathe flower, and yucca [Finland; date not given]. Sensitization was evaluated by skin prick tests (SPT) and analyses for IgE antibodies. SPT were positive to all three plants, and IgE antibodies were found to weeping fig and spathe flower. SPT were also performed with several decorative houseplants in more than 600 patients. Positive SPT was found to weeping fig (12%), African milk tree (Euphorbia trigona ; 8.3%), yucca (5.8%), Chinese rose (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ; 4.7%), massangana (Dracaena fragrans ; 4.6%), bird's nest fern (Asplenium nidus ; 3.2%), and spathe flower (3.2%)."
(2) AB: "We report a case of a 37-year-old road worker from Martinique (French West Indies, France) who developed urticaria and rhinitis after cutting shrubs of F. benjamina and breadfr

4.08

no vidence

4.09

Choi JongIn; Seon JeangHoon; Paek KeeYoeup; Kim TaeJung (1998) Photosynthesis and stomatal conductance of eight foliage plant species as affected by photosynthetic photon flux density and temperature. Journal of the Korean Society for Horticultural Science, 1998, Vol.39, No.2, pp.197-202, 16 ref. 2) MIN-G-M and LEE-J-S 1992. GROWTH RESPONSES AND ACCLIMATIZATION OF FICUS-BENJAMINA WG-1 TO THE CHANGES OF LIGHT CONDITIONS.Journal-of-the-Korean-Society-for-Horticultural-Science. 33 (1): 48-53.

AB: "CO2 assimilation, intercellular CO2 concentration, stomatal conductance and transpiration as influenced by photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and temperature were determined for 8 foliage plants. Chlorophyll contents of most plants tended to increase with low PPFDs (35-100 micro mol m-2 s-1) and low temperatures compared with high PPFD (300 micro mol m-2 s-1) and high temperatures. Ficus benjamina attained a high CO2 concentration under 300 micro mol m-2 s-1 PPFD." 2)The growth of Ficus benjamina 'WG-1' under low light intensities (60%, 90% shading) was better than higher light intensities (0%, 30% shading) considering the abilities to be acclimatized.

4.1

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

- Soil texture: light; medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free; impeded
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral; alkaline
- Special soil tolerances: shallow; infertile

4.11

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benjamina is a large strangling fig with an umbrella-shaped, graceful crown and few or no aerial roots. It is grown for ornamental purposes and is therefore found in many countries outside its natural range;

4.12

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benjamina is a large strangling fig with an umbrella-shaped, graceful crown and few or no aerial roots. It is grown for ornamental purposes and is therefore found in many countries outside its natural range;

5.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benjamina is a large strangling fig with an umbrella-shaped, graceful crown and few or no aerial roots. It is grown for ornamental purposes and is therefore found in many countries outside its natural range;

5.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benjamina is a large strangling fig with an umbrella-shaped, graceful crown and few or no aerial roots. It is grown for ornamental purposes and is therefore found in many countries outside its natural range;

5.03

no evidence

5.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benjamina is a large strangling fig with an umbrella-shaped, graceful crown and few or no aerial roots. It is grown for ornamental purposes and is therefore found in many countries outside its natural range;

6.01

no evidence

6.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

- Seed storage recalcitrant

6.03

Pollinated only by species specific fig wasp; unlilkely to hybridize

6.04

6.05

fig wasp

6.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Ability to sucker; regenerate rapidly; suited for coppicing

6.07

R. Criley, UH Department of Horticulture, personal communication

7.01

no evidence

7.02

Vidalie, H. (2000) Foliage pot plants for decorative purposes.
(FranchTitle: Plantes en pot à feuillage et à port décoratifs.) PHM Revue Horticole, 2000, No.414, pp.30-35, 11 ref.

AB: "Production data of foliage pot plants in France, Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Belgium and Luxembourg, the UK, Italy, Spain and Switzerland are presented. The Netherlands are the greatest producers (547 ha of greenhouses) with 64% of plants for export. The most popular plants are Ficus benjamina, Hedera spp., Dracaena spp., Yucca and Schefflera . "

7.03

no evidence

7.04

no evidence

7.05

no evidence

7.06

fleshy fig with red color when mature

7.07

" The foraging behaviour of the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx , was investigated in 10 species of fruit trees near the Madurai Kamaraj University campus in Tamil Nadu, over 121 nights between May 1996 and January 1998. The tree species were Annona squamosa, Polyalthia longifolia, P. pendula, Achras sapota [Manilkara zapota], Calophyllum inophyllum, Coccinia indica [C. grandis], Terminalia catappa, Ficus religiosa, F. benjamina and F. bengalensis [F. benghalensis] .The bat began to visit fruit-bearing trees about 30 min after sunset. Individual bats often hovered near or landed on fruits or on nearby branches to remove whole or parts of fruits with their mouths. These bats seldom remained in the fruit-bearing trees to feed, but instead carried fruits to feeding roosts, repeating this behaviour several times throughout the night. Analysis of the temporal distribution of feeding behaviour revealed 2 peaks of activity, one in the pre-midnight hours when bats fed mostly on 'steady state' fruits (those p

7.08

bird dispersal

8.01

numerous minute seeds in small figs

8.02

8.03

Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
http://www.hear.org/pier/fibeng.htm>
Hammer, R. L. in: Randall, J. M. and J. Marinelli, ed. 1996. Invasive plants: weeds of the global garden. Brooklyn Botanic Garden Handbook 149. p. 33-34.

Chemical: "Fig trees are particularly sensitive to triclopyr herbicides as a basal or cut-stump treatment. Trees found growing on concrete or rock structures should be treated with herbicide while young to avoid costly structural damage. Use extreme caution when applying herbicide to figs growing as epiphytes to ensure that the poison does not contact the host tree. When exotic figs germinate high in the branches of large trees in natural forest communities, it may be extraordinarily difficult to get close enough to the fig to treat it." (Hammer, 1996) (chemcial is effective but difficult in practice)

8.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Ability to sucker; regenerate rapidly; suited for coppicing

8.05

no information