Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Ficus benghalensis; Indian banyan

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

y

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

n

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

3

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

(1) Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida
<http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_WG209#FOOTNOTE_1>
This document is SP 242, one of a series of the Department of Agronomy, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First printed: 1997. Revised: April, 2001. Please visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. This document was prepared in cooperation with the Metropolitan Dade County Park and Recreation Department, Natural Areas Management, and the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council.
Authors: Kenneth Langeland, Professor, Department of Agronomy; Randall Stocker, Professor and Center Director, Center for Aquatic Plants, Department of Agronomy, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611.

All three species (Ficus altissima, F. benghalensis, F. microcarpa ) invade the interior and edges of hammocks; often found growing as epiphytes (on trees) or epiliths (on rocks or stone structures); exercise care when treating epiphytic figs to ensure that herbicide does not come in contact with the host tree; members of this genus are very sensitive to Garlon 4; extreme care must be taken when treating any vegetation near the native strangler fig and shortleaf fig; spray that contacts surface roots can kill a large tree.

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 30N to 10S
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Afghanistan; Bangladesh; India (Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal); Nepal; Pakistan

2.02

2.03

1)FC 2)http://www.floridata.com/ref/f/ficu_ben.cfm

Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 30N to 10S
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Afghanistan; Bangladesh; India (Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal); Nepal; Pakistan
Climate descriptors
- Altitude range: 300 - 1300 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 500 - 4000 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; winter
- Dry season duration: 4 - 6 months
- Mean annual temperature: 17 - 25 C
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 28 - 36 C
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 6 - 13 C
- Absolute minimum temperature: 0 - 8 C
2) USDA Hardiness zones 10-12

2.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 30N to 10S
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Afghanistan; Bangladesh; India (Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal); Nepal; Pakistan

2.05

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

List of countries where planted
Africa: [Tanzania](Zanzibar);Uganda
North America: USA (Florida)

3.01

Over 60 exotic Ficus species have been introduced into southern Florida as ornamentals. Three of these, F. altissima, F. benghalensis, F. microcarpa, are now weedy because they are pollinated routinely by immigrant aganoid wasps (Eupristina sp., E. masoni and Parapristina verticillata, resp.). Conditions for colonization by these wasps appear to have been met, and are potentially suitable for pollination of 2 other fig species.

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

(1) Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida
<http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_WG209#FOOTNOTE_1>
This document is SP 242, one of a series of the Department of Agronomy, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First printed: 1997. Revised: April, 2001. Please visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. This document was prepared in cooperation with the Metropolitan Dade County Park and Recreation Department, Natural Areas Management, and the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council.
Authors: Kenneth Langeland, Professor, Department of Agronomy; Randall Stocker, Professor and Center Director, Center for Aquatic Plants, Department of Agronomy, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611. 2)http://www.fnps.org/dade/pubs/PlantsToAvoid.html

1) All three species (Ficus altissima, F. benghalensis, F. microcarpa
) invade the interior and edges of hammocks; often found growing as epiphytes (on trees) or epiliths (on rocks or stone structures); exercise care when treating epiphytic figs to ensure that herbicide does not come in contact with the host tree; members of this genus are very sensitive to Garlon 4; extreme care must be taken when treating any vegetation near the native strangler fig and shortleaf fig; spray that contacts surface roots can kill a large tree. 2)Prohibited species, Miami Dade County, invades Pine Rocklands, Hammocks

3.05

(1) Weeds in New Zealand (http://www.boprc.govt.nz/www/green/weedindx.htm) contact: norb@kcbbs.gen.nz
(2)Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. FLEPPC 1999 List of Florida's Most Invasive Species. Internet: http://www.fau.edu/envsci/99list.htm

(1) F. pumila and F. rubiginosa are prohibited from propagation, sale and distribution in New Zealand.
(2) F. microcarpa was listed in Category I—(Species that are invading and disrupting native plant communities in Florida. This definition does not rely on the economic severity or geographic range of the problem, but on the documented ecological damage caused. ) F. altissma was listed in Category II—Species that have shown a potential to disrupt native plant communities. These species may become ranked as Category I, but have not yet demonstrated disruption of natural Florida communities.

4.01

4.02

(1) Verma, S. C.; Haider, M. M. (1998) Allelopathic potential of leaf extracts of some forest trees on seed germination in Leucaena leucocephala. Range Management & Agroforestry, 1998, Vol.19, No.1, pp.83-85, 3 ref.
(2) Koul, V. K.; Raina, A.; Khanna, Y. P.; Tickoo, M. L.; Singh, H. (1991) Evaluation of allelopathic influence of certain farm grown tree species on rice (Oryza sativa L. c.v. PC 19). Indian Journal of Forestry, 1991, Vol.14, No.1, pp.54-57, 13 ref.

(1) "The effects of different concentrations of aqueous leaf extracts of Acacia nilotica , Albizia procera , Ficus benghalensis , Terminalia arjuna , Syzygium cumini and Leucaena leucocephala [3 varieties] were investigated on the germination and speed of germination index in 3 varieties of Leucaena leucocephala (K-8, K-28 and K-132). Leaf extracts of A. procera and F. benghalensis inhibited the germination and speed of germination index in all 3 varieties while S. cumini leaf extract promoted germination in K-132. There was no effect of leaf extract of the same variety of Leucaena on its own seeds in the case of K-28 and K-132 varieties. However, in variety K-8 10% leaf extract gave a higher germination percentage than the control value. The leaf extracts of other tree species did not exhibit marked allelopathic effects on germination. " (Lab Only, cannot extrapolate to nature)
(2) "Laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the allelopathic activity of leaf leachates of 8 commonly grown farm tree

4.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benghalensis is a very large, long-lived evergreen tree with thick spreading horizontal branches, from which numerous aerial roots descend and take root, forming new trunks.

4.04

(1) Mondal, T.; Chakraborty, N.; Mandal, L. (1994) Nutritive value of banyan (Ficus bengalensis ) tree leaves in male Black Bengal goats. Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition, 1994, Vol.11, No.2, pp.117-119, 9 ref.
(2) Prasad, J. R.; Krishna, N. (1992) Evaluation of complete rations containing fallen banyan (Ficus benghalensis ) tree leaves in native lambs. Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition, 1992, Vol.9, No.2, pp.112-115, 10 ref.

(1) "Fresh banyan (Ficus bengalensis [F. benghalensis] ) tree leaves were given to 4 healthy male Black Bengal goats, average liveweight 7.62 plus or minus 0.32 kg, as sole feed. Voluntary DM intake was 3.59 plus or minus 0.07 kg/100 kg body weight. Banyan tree leaves contained 3.81% digestible CP and 49.78% total digestible nutrients on a DM basis. All goats were in positive nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus balance, though a loss in body weight was noted. It was therefore recommended to supplement this feed with a concentrate mixture. "
(2) "Young Nellore rams, initial body weight 13.66 kg, in groups of 4 each were fed on a complete basal diet containing 60% groundnut haulms with 0, 15, 30 or 45% groundnut haulms replaced by ground fallen banyan (Fiscus benghalensis ) leaves. Average daily body weight gain was 82.97, 70.33, 58.24 and 37.37 g, respectively. Feed conversion efficiency was 9.80, 7.84, 6.96 and 5.00%. Nitrogen retention was 7.88, 6.29, 5.93 and 2.60% of intake. Banyan leaves at 45% replacement

4.05

no evidence

4.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Insect pests:
Euploea core
Eupristina masoni
Trilocha varians [1]
Fungus diseases:
Phylacteophaga
Footnotes:
1. Larvae cause in defoliation. (synonym: Ocinara varians)

4.07

1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2)http://www.floridata.com/ref/f/ficu_ben.cfm

Generally the fruit is only eaten in times of famine. F. benghalensis has medicinal properties: the sap is used to treat rheumatism and lumbago; the bark may cure dysentery, diarrhoea and diabetes; leaves are applied to abscesses; and root fibres are used in gonad problems (Hocking, 1993). 2)The foliage and milky sap of all figs can sometimes be an irritant to skin and eyes for especially sensitive people, but most people are not effected

4.08

no evidence

4.09

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.; (1) Hocking D, 1993. Trees for drylands. 1993, xiii + 370 pp.; Originally published by Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India; 12 pp. of ref. (2) Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. 1993, xv + 562 pp.; 18 pp. of ref + refs in text.

(1) F. benghalensis is a strong light-demander and is unable to germinate or grow in the shade (Hocking, 1993). (2)Both seedlings and cuttings require light and plenty of moisture for optimum growth (Gupta, 1993).

4.1

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.; Hocking D, 1993. Trees for drylands. 1993, xiii + 370 pp.; Originally published by Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India; 12 pp. of ref.

- Soil texture: light; medium
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral; alkaline
- Special soil tolerances: shallow; saline
F. benghalensis tends to grow slowly in less preferred conditions, such as acid soils, high rainfall, cool temperatures and coastal belts (Hocking, 1993).

4.11

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

This species initially exists as an epiphyte that will rapidly send down roots and begin to envelop the host tree, eventually killing it.

4.12

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benghalensis is a very large, long-lived evergreen tree with thick spreading horizontal branches, from which numerous aerial roots descend and take root, forming new trunks.

5.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benghalensis is a very large, long-lived evergreen tree with thick spreading horizontal branches, from which numerous aerial roots descend and take root, forming new trunks.

5.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benghalensis is a very large, long-lived evergreen tree with thick spreading horizontal branches, from which numerous aerial roots descend and take root, forming new trunks.

5.03

Ramana, D. B. V.; Sultan Singh; Solanki, K. R.; Negi, A. S. (2000) Nutritive evaluation of some nitrogen and non-nitrogen fixing multipurpose tree species. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2000, Vol.88, No.1/2, pp.103-111, 37 ref.

"The nutritive value of leaf materials from five each of nitrogen (NFT), namely, Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbeck, Butea monosperma, Leucaena leucocephala, Pongamia pinnata and non-nitrogen fixing multipurpose tree (non-NFT) species, namely, Anogeissus pendula, Azadirachta indica, Ficus benghalensis, Terminalia arjuna and Syzygium cumini grown at National Research Centre for Agroforestry, were evaluated by chemical and in sacco methods. "

5.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benghalensis is a very large, long-lived evergreen tree with thick spreading horizontal branches, from which numerous aerial roots descend and take root, forming new trunks.

6.01

no evidence

6.02

(2)FC

(1) Fruits were collected from F. mysorences [F. mysorensis], F. bengalensis [F. benghalensis], F. glomerata and F. religiosa (all important multipurpose trees) at different stages of maturation: yellow ripening fruits; brownish yellow moderately ripe fruits; and cherry brown fully ripe fruits. The fruits were squeezed in water and the resultant floating seeds collected and dried on blotting paper in the shade for several days; wt. was recorded. Six soaking pre-treatments were given to seeds before a germination test: water at 60 deg C for 10 min; water at room temp. for 2 h; 50 p.p.m. Ethrel [ethephon] for 2 h; 100 p.p.m. gibberellic acid for 2 h; 100 p.p.m. thiourea for 2 h; and 0.3% HCl for 2 h. Treated seeds, and control (dry) untreated seeds were broadcast sown in twice the quantity of dry sand on a bed of sand or sand and red earth (2:1). Germination started in 7-8 days and was complete within 15 days. Seed wt. was very variable according to both ripeness and species. Best germination (18-20%) occurred

6.03

Pollinated only by species specific fig wasp; unlilkely to hybridize

6.04

6.05

(2)Nadel, H.; Frank, J. H.; Knight, R. J., Jr. (1992) Escapees and accomplices: the naturalization of exotic Ficus and their associated faunas in Florida. Florida Entomologist, 1992, Vol.75, No.1, pp.29-38, 31 ref.

(1) Of the 18 species of Hymenoptera found on Ficus spp. in Florida, only 4 (all agaonids) are known to be pollinators, and a key to the females of these species is given. Notes are provided on the history and biology of Parapristina verticillata on F. microcarpa (which is becoming a weed pest) and F. aurea, Eupristina masoni on F. benghalensis (banyan), Pegoscapus assuetus on F. citrifolia and F. aurea, and P. jimenezi on F. aurea and F. septica. Other Hymenoptera found on the Ficus pseudofruits are listed, many of these are torymids which probably parasitised the agaonids. Edible fig (F. carica ), although grown in Florida, does not depend on the agaonids for pollination, and Blastophaga psenes was not found in that state. (2) Over 60 exotic Ficus species have been introduced into southern Florida as ornamentals. Three of these, F. altissima, F. benghalensis, F. microcarpa, are now weedy because they are pollinated routinely by immigrant aganoid wasps (Eupristina sp., E. masoni and Parapristina verticillata

6.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Vegetative propagation by air layering (artificial)

6.07

R. Criley, UH Department of Horticulture, personal communication

7.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

In the wild, only seeds deposited in the canopy will germinate. (Although the small seeds embeded to pulp might stick to shoes, they are unlikely to germinate or survive near walking areas. Usually begins as an epiphyte)

7.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. benghalensis is extensively planted for shade and as an ornamental in gardens, villages or along roadsides.

7.03

no evidence

7.04

no evidence

7.05

no evidence

7.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

In the wild, F. benghalensis is naturally dispersed via the excrement of birds and monkeys, and only seeds deposited in the canopy will germinate.

7.07

" The foraging behaviour of the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx , was investigated in 10 species of fruit trees near the Madurai Kamaraj University campus in Tamil Nadu, over 121 nights between May 1996 and January 1998. The tree species were Annona squamosa, Polyalthia longifolia, P. pendula, Achras sapota [Manilkara zapota], Calophyllum inophyllum, Coccinia indica [C. grandis], Terminalia catappa, Ficus religiosa, F. benjamina and F. bengalensis [F. benghalensis] .The bat began to visit fruit-bearing trees about 30 min after sunset. Individual bats often hovered near or landed on fruits or on nearby branches to remove whole or parts of fruits with their mouths. These bats seldom remained in the fruit-bearing trees to feed, but instead carried fruits to feeding roosts, repeating this behaviour several times throughout the night. Analysis of the temporal distribution of feeding behaviour revealed 2 peaks of activity, one in the pre-midnight hours when bats fed mostly on 'steady state' fruits (those p

7.08

Bird dispersal

8.01

numerous minute seeds in small figs.

8.02

Rai, S. N.; Nagaveni, H. C.; Padmanabha, H. S. A. (1988) Germination and nursery technique of four species of Ficus. Indian Forester, 1988, Vol.114, No.2, pp.63-68, 3 ref.

"Germination started in 7-8 days and was complete within 15 days."

8.03

(1) Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida|<http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_WG209#FOOTNOTE_1>
This document is SP 242, one of a series of the Department of Agronomy, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First printed: 1997. Revised: April, 2001. Please visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. This document was prepared in cooperation with the Metropolitan Dade County Park and Recreation Department, Natural Areas Management, and the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council.
Authors: Kenneth Langeland, Professor, Department of Agronomy; Randall Stocker, Professor and Center Director, Center for Aquatic Plants, Department of Agronomy, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611.
(2) Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
http://www.hear.org/pier/fibeng.htm>
Hammer, R. L. in: Randall, J. M. and J. Marinelli, ed. 1996. Invasive plants: weeds o

(1) Basal bark application of 10% Garlon 4 is effective.
(2) Chemical: "Fig trees are particularly sensitive to triclopyr herbicides as a basal or cut-stump treatment. Trees found growing on concrete or rock structures should be treated with herbicide while young to avoid costly structural damage. Use extreme caution when applying herbicide to figs growing as epiphytes to ensure that the poison does not contact the host tree. When exotic figs germinate high in the branches of large trees in natural forest communities, it may be extraordinarily difficult to get close enough to the fig to treat it." (Hammer, 1996) (chemicals are effective but chemical control is logistically difficult)

8.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

It is susceptible to fire, although seldom are its many stems all killed by fire.

8.05

no evidence