Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Cocos nucifera


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Low risk, score: -4


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Cocos nucifera L. Family - Arecaceae. Common Names(s) - Coconut palm. Synonym(s) - .

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

-3

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

y

1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4+

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

Total score:

-4

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)The wild coconut is much better adapted to long-distance dispersal than its cultivated descendants…Domesticated coconut is adapted to ocean transport for up to three months but subsequently loses its viability. [cultivated forms with reduced dispersibility]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

1.02

(1)sparingly naturalized in areas of previous cultivation, primarily coastal sites on all of the main islands.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

1.03

(1)Invasive potential There is no danger of coconuts being invasive, as the spread inland from its natural habitat can only be affected by humans. The large size of the seed and low numbers produced per palm also make its spread easy to control [some cultivars more adapted to ocean dispersal, but none mentioned as being particularly invasive]

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

2.01

(1)C. nucifera is believed to have originated in the Indo-Malayan to Western Pacific region (Parrotta, 1993) and is now of pan-tropical distribution, mainly the result of cultivation for its nuts and by natural dispersal by the oceans.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

2.03

(1) It can be cultivated up to an elevation of 1200 m near the equator or 900 m at higher latitudes (Moistero, 1978), with annual rainfall of 700-5000 mm but growth and fruit production are reduced at the extremes (Parrotta, 1993). [elevational range >1000 m ONLY at equator] Climatic amplitude (estimates)
- Altitude range: 0 - 1200 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 1200 - 2300 mm
- Rainfall regime: bimodal; uniform
- Dry season duration: 0 - 4 months
- Mean annual temperature: 22 - 35ºC
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 30 - 38ºC
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 16 - 23ºC
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 7ºC (2)The palm is almost intolerant of cold and is adaptable only to zones 10b and 11.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Riffle, R. L. and P. Craft. 2003.An Encyclopedia of Cultivated Palms. Timber Press. Portland, OR.

2.04

(1)sparingly naturalized in areas of previous cultivation, primarily coastal sites on all of the main islands.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.05

(1)Distribution All tropical and subtropical regions.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

3.01

(1)sparingly naturalized in areas of previous cultivation, primarily coastal sites on all of the main islands.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

3.02

No evidence

3.03

No evidence

3.04

(1)Comments: Reported as possibly an invasive plant in the Galápagos Islands per Charles Darwin Research Station. (2)Conservation groups loathe the coconut palm, saying it is an alien, invasive species that is encroaching on native vegetation and crowding out a narrow band of littoral rain forest - one of the rarest types of forest in the world...To some ecologists, the trees are public enemy No. 1, on a par with the hated cane toad, which was introduced to Queensland from Hawaii in the 1930s to control a type of beetle but has since bred in millions and spread across the continent...So passionate is the debate that Spencer and a band of volunteers are poisoning the trees in a covert campaign of sabotage. Digging through the leaf litter in a particularly dense stand of palms, he points out a tiny hole at the base of a particularly tall specimen. "We put poison in there. We have to do it on days when the weather is bad and there's no one on the beach." Poisoning the palms is not strictly illegal because they are not a protected species. But at the very least it is "illicit and unauthorized," according to the environmental biologist, who says he would welcome some form of prosecution by the Queensland national parks service because it would raise the profile of the issue...The next stage in the great coconut confrontation will be a fresh assault on the palms by the conservationists. As with earlier campaigns, they will rip out germinating nuts, cut down smaller trees, and poison the big ones. "We've done a huge amount of coconut removal already," Spencer says. "If they're left to their own devices, you end up with a monoculture. But if you tell people [coconut palms are] a weed, they go berserk." (3) Non-native Flora of Belize. Cocos nucifera. Food Pacific Highly invasive

(1)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/cocos_nucifera.htm [Accessed 23 July 2008] (2)Squires, N. 2006. Australia's coconut palms: hammock peg or noxious weed? The Christian Science Monitor. September 14, 2006 edition. (3)http://biological-diversity.info/invasive_flora.htm [Accessed 23 July 2008]

3.05

A monotypic genus

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.02

No evidence

4.03

No evidence

4.04

(1)TABLE 3. Trees and shrubs species used as fodder on smallholder farms...Cocos nucifera L.Parts Used as Fruit/Feed - Frond stalks and leaflets.

(1)Moog, F.A. 1991. Role of fodder trees in Philippine smallholder farms. In Andrew Speedy and Pierre-Luc Pugliese (eds). Legume trees and other fodder trees as protein sources for livestock. Proceedings of the FAO Expert Consultation. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

4.05

No evidence

4.06

(1)Pests and pathogens of coconuts may also affect other palms, and vice versa, but not other crops. Economic palms such as the nipa (Nypa fruticans) and rattan (Calamus spp.) occupy different ecological zones and are thus unlikely to exchange pests and pathogens with coconut. In countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and PNG where oil palms have been grown in proximity to coconuts, some coconut pests (rhinoceros beetle and palm weevil) and diseases (Ganoderma root disease) have crossed over. Betel nut (Areca catechu) and some ornamental palms are open to attacks by the pests and pathogens of coconuts grown nearby.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

4.07

No evidence

4.08

No evidence

4.09

(1)It is intolerant of shade, self-pruning, highly resistant to wind damage and may tolerate some salinity (Parrotta, 1993).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.10

(1)It prefers deep, fertile and adequately drained soils at pH 5.5 - 6.5, with either a high water-table or continually replenished surface soil moisture (Francis and Liogier, 1991; PCARRD, 1993). Soil descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral
- Special soil tolerances: saline (2)This palm has remarkable ability to adapt to a wide range of soil types. Although coarse sand is its natural habitat, best growth is obtained on deep soils with good physical and chemical properties. It is thus widely grown on loams as well as clays that are well drained.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

4.11

Tree

4.12

(1)Natural stands are reaped merely by picking up the nuts, without any effort to remove the already sprouted nuts that can grow into dense thickets.

(1)Gruezo, W.S. and H. C. Harries. 1984. Wild-Type Coconuts in the Philippines. Biotropica 16(2): 140-147.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Arecaceae

5.03

Arecaceae

5.04

(1)As a monocot, the palm has no taproot but instead produces adventitious roots from the base of the stem.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

6.01

No evidence, and native habitat not well defined

 

6.02

(1)Generally, C. nucifera is propagated from seeds (the nuts), which take 8-10 weeks to germinate and 30 weeks to reach planting-out size.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.03

A monotypic genus

(1)Wagner, W. L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

6.04

(1)Flowers: Separate male and female flowers are borne in the same inflorescence, which is a compound spadix arising in the leaf axil. Flowers are off white to gray or yellow, and inconspicuous. They are generally protandrous, meaning that male flowers release pollen before females become receptive. Flowering occurs continuously, since each leaf axil produces one inflorescence, and new leaves are produced approximately monthly...Since coconuts are protandrous, they are believed to be largely cross pollinated. Dwarf cultivars, particularly the popular ornamentals, are largely self-pollinating as opposed to the Tall cultivars of commerce which rarely pollinate themselves. (2)Anthesis is usually completed before the female flowers are receptive, encouraging cross-pollination. However, pollination can occur between flowers of successive spadices on the same palm.

(1)http://www.uga.edu/fruit/coconut.html [Accessed 23 July 2008] (2)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

6.05

(1)Bees are the main pollinators for coconuts, which produce copious quantities of flowers nearly continually. Coconut honey is of exceptional quality.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

6.06

No evidence

6.07

(1)Under favorable growing conditions, first flowering occurs about 4–5 years after planting.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

7.01

Large seeds would never be accidentally dispersed

 

7.02

(1)Besides its nuts, C. nucifera trees are of enormous general utility. The timber is used for poles, construction, furniture, boxes, fixtures, particle board, paper pulp, charcoal, and occasionally veneers. The wood is difficult to saw, requiring tungsten carbide teeth. Coconut milk may be drunk or used as a medium for tissue culture; the copra (dried endosperm) is used for extraction of oils for use in foods, cosmetics, and medicines; the cori (mesocarp fibres) is used to construct mats, ropes, carpets, brushes, brooms, and bags, packaging, and potting media; the shell is used to make bowels, cups, spoons, ladles, smoking pipes, ashtrays, vases, boxes, and toys. The leaves are used in thatching, and the terminal bud may be eaten as a vegetable. The roots have medicinal properties, and provide a sweet sucrose-rich liquid known as toddy (Westphal and Jansen, 1989).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

Large seeds would never be accidentally dispersed

 

7.04

Very large fruit/seeds

 

7.05

(1)Coconuts can float on the ocean for months and still germinate when beached, so they may have arisen anywhere between the eastern Indian and western Pacific oceans.

(1)http://www.uga.edu/fruit/coconut.html [Accessed 23 July 2008]

7.06

7.07

Not for long distances (1)The seeds are spread by water and people.

 

7.08

No animal can pass large seeds

 

8.01

(1)may have more than one viable embryo, but this is rare. About 50–80 fruits per year are produced on a bearing palm.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

8.02

(1)Coconuts have no dormancy period and it is not advisable to store seednuts longer than necessary. With early-germinating types such as Malayan Talls, it is not advisable to store for any length of time. Slow germinators, such as the West African Talls and most Polynesian types, may be stored for up to a month with no ill effects as long as the water in the nut cavity does not dry out. If seednuts are to be stored for longer periods, they should be picked at 11 months of age when the epicarp is starting to turn brown and stored in a dry cool place. If fruits are picked half brown, they are stored under shade until the epicarp is completely brown before sowing.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

8.03

Methods for controlling other palm species should be effective in killing coconut palms (1)MK described using a drill for killing eucalyptus and palm trees. He uses a 16” long drill bit for palm trees to drill into the center of the palm. Herbicide is then added to the hole. The plant slumps down on itself after a year or more. He is running an experiment to test how many holes and how much herbicide is needed to kill the palms. Fan palms die with 1 hole and somewhere between 0.25 and 0.5 mL Roundup. Phoenix canariensis are harder to kill and he is still collecting data. He is also comparing results with Roundup and Garlon. Defining “dead” may be not when the tree is all brown but when the terminal bundle is dead. JD said that palms have segregated bundles throughout and trying different depths might result in a completely dead palm. The herbicide is introduced into the tree using a rigid plastic tube from Consolidated Plastics (htt

(1)http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/pdf/2007/07ControlDG.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

8.04

(1)Young palms will succumb to fire, but mature palms will often survive if the canopy is far enough above the fire to escape the flames...Coppice
It will die if the growing tip is cut or damaged. However, it will regrow even if many fronds are damaged or cut and even after transplanting as long as much of the root system is preserved.

(1)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2008]

8.05

(1)Coconuts have few insect and disease problems in Hawaii, and a strict quarantine exists to prevent introduction of pests. Of special concern is the disease called lethal yellowing, which wiped out the coconut from Miami's skyline. (2)One recently described fungal disease causes fruit and heart rot in coconut trees of all ages.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI. (2)Uchida, J. Y., J. J. Ook, N. M. Nagata, and C. Y. Kadooka. 1992. A new Phytophthora fruit and heart rot of coconut. Univ. Hawaii, HITAHR Brief 090: 1-3.


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