Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Vis. Family - Asteraceae. Common Names(s) - Pyrethrum. Synonym(s) - Pyrethrum cinerariifolium Trevir., Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Schultz-Bip.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

0

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

1

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

1

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

1

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

1

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

3

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence that C. cinerariifolium has become highly domesticated, although several other Chrysanthemum spp. Cultivars exist

(1)Singh, A. K. 2006. Flower Crops: Cultivation and Management. New India Publishing, New Delhi.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)It is adapted to a temperate climate with 45 to 50 inches of rainfall. (2)Pyrethrum is a European plant, native to Dalmatia on the Adriatic Coast of Yugoslavia. (3)in the tropics successful cultivation only occurs at high altitudes (e.g. 2000-3000 m in Kenya); chilling is required to initiate flower buds. (4)The cultivation of pyrethrum, takes place in mountainous regions up to a height of 3000 m, ideally in semi-arid conditions where the winters are cool. Rainfall of 1200 mm with a 2-3 month dry season are best. Pyrethrum can withstand frost down to –12°C, but in situations below about 1600 m the flowers do not set sufficiently.

(1)http://www.beeculture.com/content/pollination_handbook/pyrethrum.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (2)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. (3)Hill, D. S. 2008. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and Their Control. Springer-Verlag. Berlin. (4)http://wwbota.free.fr/XMLPublication/text+index/html/items/PYRETHRUM-d0e828.html [Accessed 17 Mar 2009]

2.02

2.03

(1)Hardiness:USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F), USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) (2)Pyrethrum is grown in northern temperate countries and tropical areas at higher altitudes. Plants are susceptible to frost. In Kenya, crops are grown from 1,800 to 2,700 m in elevation. (3)in the tropics successful cultivation only occurs at high altitudes (e.g. 2000-3000 m in Kenya); chilling is required to initiate flower buds.

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/63874/ [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (2)Roecklein, J. C. and P.Sun Leung. 1987. A Profile of economic plants. Transaction Publishers. New Brunswck, NJ. (3)Hill, D. S. 2008. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and Their Control. Springer-Verlag. Berlin.

2.04

(1)It is adapted to a temperate climate with 45 to 50 inches of rainfall. (2)Pyrethrum is a European plant, native to Dalmatia on the Adriatic Coast of Yugoslavia. (3)in the tropics successful cultivation only occurs at high altitudes (e.g. 2000-3000 m in Kenya); chilling is required to initiate flower buds. (4)occasionally found as an escape in fields, by roadsides and habitations...in cultivation - Central Europe, Mediterranean, where occasionally occurs as an escape. (5)Geographical Origin: Southeastern Europe, Cultivated elsewhere, Naturalized elsewhere (6)Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium Vis. Invasion status Nt = Naturalized aliens

(1)http://www.beeculture.com/content/pollination_handbook/pyrethrum.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (2)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. (3)Hill, D. S. 2008. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and Their Control. Springer-Verlag. Berlin. (4)Fedorov, N. N. 2002. Magnoliophyta (=Angiospermae), Magnoliopsida (=Dicotyledones). CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida. (5)http://www.isws.illinois.edu/data/altcrops/cropreq.asp?crop=837&fp=croplist&letter=D&nmeType=cmn [Accessed 16 Mar 2009] (6)Khuroo, A. A., I. Rashid, Z. Reshi, G. H. Dar, B. A. Wafai. 2007. The alien flora of Kashmir Himalaya. Biol Invasions 9:269–292.

2.05

(1)Pyrethrum originated in the Dalmatian Mountains of Yugoslavia and its cultivation spread throughout the world at the turn of the century. The colonial powers introduced it into East Africa and South America and after the First World War Japan became the principal exporter

(1)http://wwbota.free.fr/XMLPublication/text+index/html/items/PYRETHRUM-d0e828.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009]

3.01

(1)occasionally found as an escape in fields, by roadsides and habitations...in cultivation - Central Europe, Mediterranean, where occasionally occurs as an escape. (2)Geographical Origin: Southeastern Europe, Cultivated elsewhere, Naturalized elsewhere (3)Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium Vis. Invasion status Nt = Naturalized aliens

(1)Fedorov, N. N. 2002. Magnoliophyta (=Angiospermae), Magnoliopsida (=Dicotyledones). CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida. (2)http://www.isws.illinois.edu/data/altcrops/cropreq.asp?crop=837&fp=croplist&letter=D&nmeType=cmn [Accessed 16 Mar 2009] (3)Khuroo, A. A., I. Rashid, Z. Reshi, G. H. Dar, B. A. Wafai. 2007. The alien flora of Kashmir Himalaya. Biol Invasions 9:269–292.

3.02

[information under 3.03 indicate that this species qualifies as a disturbance weed; economic impacts not adequately documented for agriculture] (1)Not listed as a garden or disturbance weed

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/chrysanthemum_cinerariifolium/ [Accessed 17 Mar 2009]

3.03

(1)listed as one of the "Weeds reported in rice in South and Southeast Asia" [impacts on rice cultivation not specified] (2)Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Vis. Asteraceae = Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch.Bip. ◆ Weed - 3 [This plant has been recorded as a weed of agriculture. specifics or impacts to agriculture not mentioned] (3)agricultural weed [specifics or impacts to agriculture not mentioned]

(1)Moody, K. 1989. Weeds reported in rice in South and Southeast Asia. Int. Rice Res. Inst. Manila, Philippines. (2)Randall, R. P. 2007. The introduced flora of Australia and its weed status. CRC for Australian Weed Management. Glen Osmond, Australia. (3)Wells, M.J., Balsinhas, V.M., Joffe, H., Engelbrecht, V.M., Harding, G. and Stirton, C.H. (1986) A Catalogue of Problem Plants in Southern Africa, incorporating The National Weed List of South Africa. Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa No. 53. Botanical Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa.

3.04

(1)not listed as an environmental weed

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/chrysanthemum_cinerariifolium/ [Accessed 17 Mar 2009]

3.05

(1)Chrysanthemum coronarium Garland or Crown Daisy is an invasive annual wildflower. It produces many viable seeds that germinate readily, allowing it to establish solid dominant stands. Desiccated foliage persists and can be a fire hazard in late summer. It produces many viable seeds that germinate readily. It is often found in commercial seed mixes and its seedlings grow quickly and can out-compete native vegetation. Seeds persist for several seasons. (2)Ox-eye Daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Ox-eye Daisy Prohibited in the States of Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Montana, Ohio, Washington, Wyoming, and West Virginia. This is our common roadside daisy, established and loved in all 50 states. It does become invasive in many areas, so has been prohibited by more states than any other wildflower, mostly for agricultural reasons. It has been with us for hundreds of years, being one of the European weeds that were brought inadvertently across the ocean in colonists’ crop seed sacks as they embarked on farming in a new world.

(1)http://weedwatch.lasgrwc.org/docs/matrix/Chrysanthemum_coronarium_01082007.pdf [Accessed 17 Mar 2009] (2)http://www.wildflowerinformation.org/InvasiveWildflowers.asp [Accessed 17 Mar 2009]

4.01

(1)No spines, thorns or burrs

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

4.02

(1)No evidence

(1)Roecklein, J. C. and P.Sun Leung. 1987. A Profile of economic plants. Transaction Publishers. New Brunswck, NJ.

4.03

(1)Not parasitic

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

4.04

Unknown [widespread use as an insecticide, but no information on browsing or feeding by mammals]

4.05

(1)This insecticide also kills many beneficial insects, though it is relatively harmless to mammals[4]. Another report says that it is non-toxic to mammals[238]. (2)The poisonous effects of Pyrethrum on warm-blooded mammals are so slight that it is usually regarded as harmless to male. However, prolonged contact with the skin can produce a rash, and inhaling dust or spray can cause headaches and sickness

(1)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Tanacetum+cinerariifolium [Accessed 16 Mar 2009] (2)http://wwbota.free.fr/XMLPublication/text+index/html/items/PYRETHRUM-d0e828.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009]

4.06

(1)A soil-borne inoculum of Mycosphaerella ligulicola was found to be mildly pathogenic to leaves or stems of globe artichoke, rudbeckia, zinnia, sunflower and dahlia, but severely pathogenic to lettuce. This is the first report of an infection by this fungus of plants other than chrysanthemum or pyrethrum. It was found that, with successive passages of the fungus through lettuce and chrysanthemum respectively, an increase in virulence to these hosts occurred. After a single passage through lettuce a reduction in virulence to chrysanthemum resulted, but with further passages through lettuce there was no further reduction in virulence to chrysanthemum.

(1)Chesters, C. G. C. and J. P. Blakeman. 2008. Host range and variation in virulence of Mycosphaerella ligulicola. Annals of Applied Biology Volume 60 Issue 3: 385 - 390.

4.07

[most of the toxicity references refer to pyrethrins produced from flowers, others indicate that allergies and toxicity MAY result when handled by susceptible individuals] (1)Danger: All parts of plant are poisonous if ingested Handling plant may cause skin irritation or allergic reaction (2)The poisonous effects of Pyrethrum on warm-blooded mammals are so slight that it is usually regarded as harmless. However, prolonged contact wih the skin can produce a rash, and inhaling dust or spray can cause headaches and sickness (3)Some people are highly allergic to this plant[160]. Prolonged contact with the dried flowers can lead to allergic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis and asthma in humans[268]. (4)Pyrethrins are produced in the flowers and are commonly used as insecticides. These compounds work directly on the nervous systems of aphids, mites, leafhoppers, and other insects without harming fish, waterfowl, plants or mammals. Symptoms include Headaches, gastroenteritis, dizziness and psychotic changes.

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/63874/ [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (2)http://wwbota.free.fr/XMLPublication/text+index/html/items/PYRETHRUM-d0e828.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (3)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Tanacetum+cinerariifolium [Accessed 16 Mar 2009] (4)http://www.btinternet.com/~micka.wffps/poisonous.html [Accessed 17 Mar 2009]

4.08

(1)No evidence [long history of agricultural use]

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

4.09

(1)Sun Exposure: Full Sun (2)It cannot grow in the shade.

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/63874/ [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (2)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Tanacetum+cinerariifolium [Accessed 16 Mar 2009]

4.10

(1)Soil pH requirements: 5.1 to 5.5 (strongly acidic) 5.6 to 6.0 (acidic) 6.1 to 6.5 (mildly acidic) 6.6 to 7.5 (neutral) (2)Succeeds in an ordinary garden soil[1]. Prefers a rich soil with plenty of humus[147]. Prefers a pebbly, calcareous dry soil in a sunny position[4]. When grown in moist climates the plants often die after flowering[4].Tolerates a pH in the range 5.2 to 7.5.

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/63874/ [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (2)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Tanacetum+cinerariifolium [Accessed 16 Mar 2009]

4.11

(1)It is a small tufted perennial herb, about 0.5 m in height

(1)Hill, D. S. 2008. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and Their Control. Springer-Verlag. Berlin.

4.12

(1)No evidence [long history of agricultural use]

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

5.02

(1)Asteraceae

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

5.03

(1)Asteraceae

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

5.04

(1)It is a small tufted perennial herb, about 0.5 m in height

(1)Hill, D. S. 2008. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and Their Control. Springer-Verlag. Berlin.

6.01

(1)Pyrethrum is a European plant, native to Dalmatia on the Adriatic Coast of Yugoslavia. [no evidence of reproductive failure from native range]

(1)Hugo, R., M. Langer, G. D. Hill and K. Mason. 1991. Agricultural plants. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

6.02

(1)Propagation Methods: From seed

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/63874/ [Accessed 13 Mar 2009]

6.03

(1)Interclonal hybridizing, back-crossing, line-breeding and polycrosses have been used to develop new cultivars. [unknown whether natural hybrids can form]

(1)Duke, J. A. 1993. CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida.

6.04

(1)The pollination requirements of pyrethrum are not too clear, probably because of differences obtained in tests with different cultivars or under different environmental or ecological conditions. Culbertson (1940) stated that seed formation seemed to be the result of self- fertilization or apomyxis because flower heads bagged and with the anthers removed set seed. Delhaye (1956) stated that pyrethrum is highly self-fertile although a higher set of seed, and seed with higher viability, are obtained when the pollen comes from another clone. Kroll (1961) discussed a test comparing production of plants in cages with bees present, with bees excluded, and open plots. He reported that the analysis of the data was not quite conclusive but gave strong indications that production of pyrethrum is increased by insect pollination, and that fertilized embryos contain more pyrethrin than unfertilized embryos.
Purseglove (1968*) stated, without supporting data, that pyrethrum is self-sterile and must be cross-pollinated to produce viable seeds. He stated that it is insect-pollinated mainly by coleoptera and diptera. Kroll (1961) stated that the percentage of unfertilized and nonviable seeds in the field is very high. This, he concluded, seemed to indicate that the number of insect visitors was never large enough to effect satisfactory fertilization, and, at the same time, it provided a strong argument in favor of the predominance of cross- as opposed to self- fertilization.
The fertile achene was shown by Chandler (1956) to contain 1.05 percent pyrethrin compared to only 0.71 percent of barren achenes, which shows the value of having pollinated flowers for highest pyrethrin production.
Parlevliet and Contant (1970) stated that most clones are highly self-incompatible. Smith (1958) reviewed a test by L. A. Notcutt which showed that the yield of seeds was greatest from cages with bees, least from cages excluding pollinating insects, and intermediate in open plots.
A United Nations (FAO) (1961) report stated that pyrethrum is a cross-fertilized plant that requires insects for cross-pollination, the main pollinators being bees and other hymenoptera.
Brewer (1968) stated that the floret's own pollen cannot reach the receptive surfaces of the style (the stigma) because the styler lobes are closed when they extrude through the anther tube. He concluded that by the time the style becomes receptive, the germination of the floret's own pollen is about past. Delhaye (1956) tested the effect of selfing and crossing on the germination of pyrethrum seed. He found the following: Selfed without bees, 0.0 to 1.0 percent; selfed with bees present, 1.7 to 22.7 percent; crossed without bees, 5.2 to 8.3 percent; and crossed by bees, 17.7 to 27.7 percent. Brewer (1968) concluded:
The flower morphology and the flower morphogenesis of Pyrethrum resemhles closely the classical concept known in the Compositae. The flowering rhythm of the inflorescences encourages crosspollination through:
(1) The individual floret discharges the ripe pollen before it unfolds the receptive surfaces of the style.
(2) When insects visit the inflorescence their path follows the development of the flower, i.e., from the margin to the centre, in order to collect pollen and nectar. Thus they deposit the foreign pollen they carry on fully opened styles.
(3) By sticking together, the pollen mass encourages transport by insects.
(4) Pollen does not germinate on genotypically identical styles. Strong evidence exists that the incompatibility system is sporophytically determined.
(5) The limited life of the pollen after anthesis reduces the chance for own pollen to germinate on styles of the same floret.
Lower germination percentages of the pure seed (P.G.S.) are due to rainfall during the maturing period of the seed.

(1)http://www.beeculture.com/content/pollination_handbook/pyrethrum.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009]

6.05

(1)The flower is not considered highly attractive to honey bees, which seem to collect pollen primarily and only at certain times. The main insect visitors were reported by Kroll (1961) to be adult coleoptera and diptera, and their presence was seasonal. Kroll (1961) and Smith (1958), however, indicated that bees increased production of pyrethrum, so presumably the flowers were visited by these insects. (2)The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees and flies. (3)Beetles, flies, also bees; more potent insecticide derived when flowers visited by insects

(1)http://www.beeculture.com/content/pollination_handbook/pyrethrum.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009] (2)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Tanacetum+cinerariifolium [Accessed 16 Mar 2009] (3)African Pollinators Initiative. 2007. Crops, Browse and Pollinators in Africa An Initial Stock-taking. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

6.06

(1)Propagation Seed - sow spring in a greenhouse. Only just cover the seed and do not allow the pot to dry out. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they are large enough to handle and grow them on in the greenhouse for their first winter. Plant out in late spring or early summer. Division in spring. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is best to pot up smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a greenhouse or cold frame until they are growing away well. Plant them out in the summer or the following spring.

(1)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Tanacetum+cinerariifolium [Accessed 16 Mar 2009]

6.07

(1)The seeds are sown in special beds. Four months later the 4 to 5- inch-high plants are transplanted into the field (fig. 163). In another 4 months, harvest of the just-opening flower heads begins and is repeated every 2 or 3 weeks for several months.

(1)http://www.beeculture.com/content/pollination_handbook/pyrethrum.html [Accessed 13 Mar 2009]

7.01

(1)The flower head is a collection of florets surrounded by a ring of ray florets, set on a slightly convex receptacle. Both disc and ray florets have ribbed achenes which are seated upon the receptacles [no means of external attachment]

(1)Bajaj, Y. P. S. 1994. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

7.02

(1)Plants are grown at higher elevation in East Africa, Zaire, Brazil, Ecuador, Japan, and Dalmatia. (2)Pyrethrum has been tried in many countries including Rwanda, Ecuador, India, Zaire, Papua New Guinea, Nepal, China and Brazil (Ministry of Agriculture, 1992). At present, the world’s second largest producer is Australia where it is grown intensively in the southern State of Tasmania. This fully mechanized production system in Tasmania was developed by CIG Pyrethrum, part of the world-wide multinational company BOC Gases Limited.

(1)Roecklein, J. C. and P.Sun Leung. 1987. A Profile of economic plants. Transaction Publishers. New Brunswck, NJ. (2)Wandahwa, P., E. Van Ranst, P. Van Damme. 1996. Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Vis.) cultivation in West Kenya: origin, ecological conditions and management. Industrial Crops and Products 5: 307-322.

7.03

(1)Achenes 2.5-3.5 mm, 5- to 7-ribbed. Pappus an irregularly lobes coronia 0.6-1 mm [small achene size and field cultivation make produce contamination possible, but no evidence found in literature] (2)listed as one of the "Weeds reported in rice in South and Southeast Asia" [impacts on rice cultivation not specified]

(1)Tutin, T. G. and N. A. Burges. 1976. Flora Europaea, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. (2)Moody, K. 1989. Weeds reported in rice in South and Southeast Asia. Int. Rice Res. Inst. Manila, Philippines.

7.04

(1)Achenes 2.5-3.5 mm, 5- to 7-ribbed. Pappus an irregularly lobes coronia 0.6-1 mm [small size and very small pappus might make wind dispersal possible over short distances; but not likely to be important]

(1)Tutin, T. G. and N. A. Burges. 1976. Flora Europaea, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

7.05

(1)Achenes 2.5-3.5 mm, 5- to 7-ribbed. Pappus an irregularly lobes coronia 0.6-1 mm. [unknown if seeds are buoyant] (2)Rocky ground[50], usually by the seashore[4]. [coastal distribution suggests some water dispersal could be possible]

(1)Tutin, T. G. and N. A. Burges. 1976. Flora Europaea, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. (2)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Tanacetum+cinerariifolium [Accessed 18 Mar 2009]

7.06

(1)The flower head is a collection of florets surrounded by a ring of ray florets, set on a slightly convex receptacle. Both disc and ray florets have ribbed achenes which are seated upon the receptacles [not fleshy fruited]

(1)Bajaj, Y. P. S. 1994. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

7.07

(1)The flower head is a collection of florets surrounded by a ring of ray florets, set on a slightly convex receptacle. Both disc and ray florets have ribbed achenes which are seated upon the receptacles [no means of external attachment]

(1)Bajaj, Y. P. S. 1994. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

7.08

(1)Achenes 2.5-3.5 mm, 5- to 7-ribbed. Pappus an irregularly lobes coronia 0.6-1 mm. [seeds unlikely to be consumed by animals and dispersed internally]

(1)Tutin, T. G. and N. A. Burges. 1976. Flora Europaea, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

8.01

(1)It is a small tufted perennial herb, about 0.5 m in height (2)Medium seeds: 1,820 per ounce [seed numbers come from intensive cultivation, but individual plants unlikely to produce such high seed densities]

(1)Hill, D. S. 2008. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and Their Control. Springer-Verlag. Berlin. (2)McVicar, J. and M. Majerus. 2003. Seeds: The Ultimate Guide to Growing Successfully from Seed. Globe Pequot. Guilford, Connecticut.

8.02

(1)Storage Behaviour Storage Behaviour: Orthodox Storage Conditions: 58% germination following 15 years hermetic storage at 7% mc and -4°C (Barton, 1966a) [no evidence from field]

(1) Liu, K., Eastwood, R.J., Flynn, S., Turner, R.M., and Stuppy, W.H. 2008. Seed Information Database (release 7.1, May 2008) http://www.kew.org/data/sid

8.03

Unknown [no evidence of control with herbicides]

8.04

Unknown

8.05

Unknown