Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Low risk, score: 2 (low risk based on second screen)
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Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i. Information on Risk Assessments Original risk assessment |
| Ceiba pentandra (kapok, kapok tree, silk-cotton tree) - Bombacaceae | Answer | Score | |
| 1.01 | Is the species highly domesticated? | n | 0 |
| 1.02 | Has the species become naturalized where grown? | y | |
| 1.03 | Does the species have weedy races? | n | |
| 2.01 | Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical” | 2 | |
| 2.02 | Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2 | 2 | |
| 2.03 | Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility) | y | 1 |
| 2.04 | Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates | y | 1 |
| 2.05 | Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2 | y | |
| 3.01 | Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05 | y | 2 |
| 3.02 | Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | y | 2 |
| 3.03 | Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.04 | Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.05 | Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 4.01 | Produces spines, thorns or burrs | n | 0 |
| 4.02 | Allelopathic | n | 0 |
| 4.03 | Parasitic | n | 0 |
| 4.04 | Unpalatable to grazing animals | n | -1 |
| 4.05 | Toxic to animals | n | 0 |
| 4.06 | Host for recognized pests and pathogens | n | 0 |
| 4.07 | Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans | n | 0 |
| 4.08 | Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems | y | 1 |
| 4.09 | Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle | n | 0 |
| 4.1 | Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island) | y | 1 |
| 4.11 | Climbing or smothering growth habit | n | 0 |
| 4.12 | Forms dense thickets | n | 0 |
| 5.01 | Aquatic | n | 0 |
| 5.02 | Grass | n | 0 |
| 5.03 | Nitrogen fixing woody plant | n | 0 |
| 5.04 | Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers) | n | 0 |
| 6.01 | Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat | n | 0 |
| 6.02 | Produces viable seed. | y | 1 |
| 6.03 | Hybridizes naturally | n | -1 |
| 6.04 | Self-compatible or apomictic | y | 1 |
| 6.05 | Requires specialist pollinators | y | -1 |
| 6.06 | Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation | n | -1 |
| 6.07 | Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1 | 0 | 0 |
| 7.01 | Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas) | n | -1 |
| 7.02 | Propagules dispersed intentionally by people | y | 1 |
| 7.03 | Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant | n | -1 |
| 7.04 | Propagules adapted to wind dispersal | y | 1 |
| 7.05 | Propagules water dispersed | n | -1 |
| 7.06 | Propagules bird dispersed | n | -1 |
| 7.07 | Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally) | n | -1 |
| 7.08 | Propagules survive passage through the gut | n | -1 |
| 8.01 | Prolific seed production (>1000/m2) | n | -1 |
| 8.02 | Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr) | ||
| 8.03 | Well controlled by herbicides | ||
| 8.04 | Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire | y | 1 |
| 8.05 | Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents) | ||
| Total score: | 2 |
Supporting data:
| Notes | Reference | |
| 1.01 | "It is believed that C. pentandra originated in Central America, but its history cannot be accurately reconstructed. Since the tree has been cultivated widely in the tropics for a long time, different species and varieties have been described by Aubreville (1950, 1959) and other authors. In Africa, the natural phytogeographical distribution of C. pentandra corresponds to the 'Sudanian Regional Centre of Endemism', the 'Guineo-Congolia/Sudania Regional Transition Zone' and the drier peripheral semi-evergreen Guineo-Congolian lowland rainforests in West Africa (Guineo-Congolian Regional Centre of Endemism). In the latter it grows mostly in association with Khaya grandifoliola, Afzelia africana, Triplochiton scleroxylon, and Terminalia superba (White, 1983)." [Although the species is widely cultivated no evidence that the cultivated and naturally occuring species are different.] | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 1.02 | (1)Naturalized on Marquesas Islands. (2)Reported to be invasive on several Polynesian Islands such as Society Islands, Tonga, French Polynesia, Federal States of Micronesia. |
(1)http://ravenel.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/marquesasflora /results.cfm?genus=Ceiba&specificepithet=pentandra&rank=&epithet1= (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm |
| 1.03 | Since the tree has been cultivated widely in the tropics for a long time, different species and varieties have been described by Aubreville (1950, 1959) and other authors. [No evidence that these varieties are weedy]. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 2.01 | C. pentandra is a pantropical.' "It is believed that C. pentandra originated in Central America, but its history cannot be accurately reconstructed. Since the tree has been cultivated widely in the tropics for a long time, different species and varieties have been described by Aubreville (1950, 1959) and other authors. In Africa, the natural phytogeographical distribution of C. pentandra corresponds to the 'Sudanian Regional Centre of Endemism', the 'Guineo-Congolia/Sudania Regional Transition Zone' and the drier peripheral semi-evergreen Guineo-Congolian lowland rainforests in West Africa (Guineo-Congolian Regional Centre of Endemism). In the latter it grows mostly in association with Khaya grandifoliola, Afzelia africana, Triplochiton scleroxylon, and Terminalia superba (White, 1983)." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 2.02 | (1)Native range: Tropical America. (2)"It is believed that C. pentandra originated in Central America, but its history cannot be accurately reconstructed. Since the tree has been cultivated widely in the tropics for a long time, different species and varieties have been described by Aubreville (1950, 1959) and other authors. In Africa, the natural phytogeographical distribution of C. pentandra corresponds to the 'Sudanian Regional Centre of Endemism', the 'Guineo-Congolia/Sudania Regional Transition Zone' and the drier peripheral semi-evergreen Guineo-Congolian lowland rainforests in West Africa (Guineo-Congolian Regional Centre of Endemism). In the latter it grows mostly in association with Khaya grandifoliola, Afzelia africana, Triplochiton scleroxylon, and Terminalia superba (White, 1983)." | (1)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm (2)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 2.03 |
(1)"C. pentandra can be found in South and Central America, Africa and Asia
in various types of evergreen and deciduous moist forest, as well as in dry
forest and gallery forests. As a pioneer tree species, it most often occurs
in secondary forests and is therefore an indicator of human interference."
- Altitude range: 0 - 2500 m - Mean annual rainfall: 750 - 3000 mm - Rainfall regime: summer; bimodal; uniform - Dry season duration: 3 - 6 months - Mean annual temperature: 20 - 35ºC - Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 37 - 45ºC - Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 5 - 19ºC - Absolute minimum temperature: > 0ºC (2)Grows well in a range of environments from savannah to forest, and although commercially grown on rich volcanic soils also tolerates poor soils. It requres a marked dry season and sheds its leaves during drought |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm |
| 2.04 | ||
| 2.05 | C. pentandra is a pantropical, moderate to large pioneer species, reaching heights of over 60 m.' | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 3.01 | (1)Naturalized on Marquesas Islands. (2)Reported to be invasive on several Polynesian Islands such as Society Islands, Tonga, French Polynesia, Federal States of Micronesia. |
(1)http://ravenel.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/marquesasflora/ results.cfm?genus=Ceiba&specificepithet=pentandra&rank=&epithet1= (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm |
| 3.02 | (1)Common and weedy on Tonga. (2) | |
| 3.03 | ||
| 3.04 | No evidence | |
| 3.05 | No evidence | |
| 4.01 | No evidence of such structues. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 4.02 | No evidence | |
| 4.03 | No evidence | |
| 4.04 | The seeds and leaves produce a suitable fodder. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 4.05 | No evidence | |
| 4.06 | Several fungi and insect species are listed to be associated with C. pentrandra. "C. pentandra acts as an alternative host for some cotton pests, and for the cacao swollen shoot badnavirus, so it should not be planted in cotton or cocoa growing areas." [The swollen shoot badnavirus attacks several species over 3 to 9 plant families]. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. [http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/descr129.htm] |
| 4.07 | "As a maceration, the bark is a galactagogue and diuretic, and used to treat gonorrhoea, malaria and as an aphrodisiac. As a decoction it is taken for the relief of stomach ache, diarrhoea, cardiac complaints, asthma and cases of hernia. As a bath, it is used to treat infantile rachitis and anaemia. Sterile women drink the juice in order to aid conception and infusions are given to goats after birth for pain relief. The leaves are used as an emollient to treat mental diseases and young shoots are used as an emetic against intoxication. Flowers are used as a decoction or infusion to relieve constipation. Flowers and young fruits are also crushed and applied to the head to treat headaches and vertigo." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 4.08 | "It is very sensitive to fire." "When pods open, the dispersed seeds and floss may constitute a fire risk." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 4.09 | "C. pentandra is a light-demanding pioneer species and can easily be used for stand establishment." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 4.1 | "C. pentandra grows in soils derived from a variety of parent materials, but prefers alluvial sites with light and medium soils, and slightly acid to neutral pH values. It does not tolerate waterlogged sites." "Soil types: luvisols; nitisols; ferralsols; fluvisols; vertisols; acid soils; alfisols; alluvial soils; clay soils; tropical soils; ultisols." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 4.11 | A large tree. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 4.12 | No evidence | |
| 5.01 | C. pentandra is a majestic, deciduous tree which can reach heights of up to 70 m and a d.b.h. of over 2.4 m, although it usually grows to a height of 40-50 m. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 5.02 | ||
| 5.03 | ||
| 5.04 | ||
| 6.01 | No evidence. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 6.02 | Propagation by seed. … exhibit a germination percentage of approximately 90-95%. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 6.03 | No evidence [answered no becauase the species is cultivated for a long time and is relatively well studied and found no evidence on hybridization]. | |
| 6.04 | (1) "Agents of pollination are bats and insects. … An allozyme analysis of the mating system showed C. pentandra to have a mixture of selfing and outcrossing, with a population outcrossing estimate of 0.689. Estimates for individual trees ranged from complete selfing to complete outcrossing, with no evidence for apomixis. Outcrossing among the individuals sampled was not random, possibly due to asynchrony in flowering times, mate choice and non-random foraging behaviour of the bat pollinators." (2)"The identity and behavior of pollinators are among the main factors that determine the reproductive success and mating system of plants; however, few studies have directly evaluated the relationship between pollinators and the breeding system of the plants they pollinate. It is important to document this relationship because the global decline in pollinators may significantly affect the breeding systems of many animal-pollinated plants, particularly specialized systems. Ceiba pentandra is a tropical tree that has chiropterophilic flowers and a variable breeding system throughout its distribution, ranging from fully self-incompatible, to a mixed system with different degrees of selfing. To determine if regional differences in pollinators may result in regional differences in the outcrossing rate of this species, we used systematic observations of pollinator behavior in two tropical life zones and high-resolution genetic analysis of the breeding system of populations from these two regions using microsatellites. We found a predominantly self-incompatible system in regions with high pollinator visitation, while in environments with low pollinator visitation rates, C. pentandra changed to a mixed mating system with high levels of self-pollination. " [Abstract] | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/92/2/370#SEC3 |
| 6.05 | (1) "Agents of pollination are bats and insects. … An allozyme analysis of the mating system showed C. pentandra to have a mixture of selfing and outcrossing, with a population outcrossing estimate of 0.689. Estimates for individual trees ranged from complete selfing to complete outcrossing, with no evidence for apomixis. Outcrossing among the individuals sampled was not random, possibly due to asynchrony in flowering times, mate choice and non-random foraging behaviour of the bat pollinators." (2)"The identity and behavior of pollinators are among the main factors that determine the reproductive success and mating system of plants; however, few studies have directly evaluated the relationship between pollinators and the breeding system of the plants they pollinate. It is important to document this relationship because the global decline in pollinators may significantly affect the breeding systems of many animal-pollinated plants, particularly specialized systems. Ceiba pentandra is a tropical tree that has chiropterophilic flowers and a variable breeding system throughout its distribution, ranging from fully self-incompatible, to a mixed system with different degrees of selfing. To determine if regional differences in pollinators may result in regional differences in the outcrossing rate of this species, we used systematic observations of pollinator behavior in two tropical life zones and high-resolution genetic analysis of the breeding system of populations from these two regions using microsatellites. We found a predominantly self-incompatible system in regions with high pollinator visitation, while in environments with low pollinator visitation rates, C. pentandra changed to a mixed mating system with high levels of self-pollination. " [Abstract] | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/92/2/370#SEC3 |
| 6.06 | No evidence of natural spread by vegetative means. | |
| 6.07 | "C. pentandra starts to bear fruit after 3-4 years." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 7.01 | Probably not - no evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment. | |
| 7.02 | 'C. pentandra is a multipurpose tree and is grown in agroforestry systems in conjunction with coffee, cocoa or as a support tree for pepper in Java. In India it is grown with crops using the taungya system. C. pentandra is also suitable as an ornamental, shelter or shade tree and for soil protection. The seeds and leaves produce a suitable fodder. The leaves may also be used as a manure or a mulching material, and when tender the pods are edible. An oil is obtained from the seeds which is used for lamps, cooking and making soap. The leaves, bark and roots have medicinal properties. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 7.03 | C. pentandra is a multipurpose tree and is grown in agroforestry systems in conjunction with coffee, cocoa or as a support tree for pepper in Java. In India it is grown with crops using the taungya system.' [No evidence of it being a seed contaninant. Also the seeds have some of the cottony fibrous stuff attached to it that aids in wind dispersal - this probably makes it less likely to ba a contaminat]. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 7.04 | (1)"Dissemination of C. pentandra is anemochorous and natural regeneration is abundant. The lightweight seeds are dispersed by the wind together with the floss contained in the capsule." "Fruits are leathery, elliptic, greenish capsules, 10-15 cm long and up to 6 cm thick. They are flattened at both ends, open along five valves or are indehiscent, hanging. Each fruit contains about 120-175 small, black seeds which are 0.5 cm thick. They are embedded in a whitish-grey cotton-like floss, but can be separated from it easily." (2)the seeds are distributed by the wind | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm |
| 7.05 | (1)"Dissemination of C. pentandra is anemochorous and natural regeneration is abundant. The lightweight seeds are dispersed by the wind together with the floss contained in the capsule." "Fruits are leathery, elliptic, greenish capsules, 10-15 cm long and up to 6 cm thick. They are flattened at both ends, open along five valves or are indehiscent, hanging. Each fruit contains about 120-175 small, black seeds which are 0.5 cm thick. They are embedded in a whitish-grey cotton-like floss, but can be separated from it easily." (2)the seeds are distributed by the wind | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm |
| 7.06 | (1)"Dissemination of C. pentandra is anemochorous and natural regeneration is abundant. The lightweight seeds are dispersed by the wind together with the floss contained in the capsule." "Fruits are leathery, elliptic, greenish capsules, 10-15 cm long and up to 6 cm thick. They are flattened at both ends, open along five valves or are indehiscent, hanging. Each fruit contains about 120-175 small, black seeds which are 0.5 cm thick. They are embedded in a whitish-grey cotton-like floss, but can be separated from it easily." (2)the seeds are distributed by the wind | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm |
| 7.07 | No evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment. | |
| 7.08 | No evidence of ingestion by birds or ungulates. | |
| 8.01 | Probably not - seeds relatively large - "0.5 cm thick" | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/ceiba_pentandra.htm |
| 8.02 | "Since the seeds contain food reserves in the form of oils that tend to go rancid quickly, their viability diminishes rapidly. It has not yet been possible to preserve them for extended periods, not even using specialized storage techniques. In Venezuela, seeds are soaked in cold to lukewarm water for 24 hours prior to sowing. In West Africa, good results have been achieved by soaking seeds for 5 minutes in boiling water." [No evidence of viability under natural conditions]. | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 8.03 | No evidence of the species being controlled for. | |
| 8.04 | "Ability to regenerate rapidly; coppice; pollard." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 8.05 | Don’t know |
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