Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

2-3

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

n

1

Total score:

20

Notes

Source

1.01

No, this species has not been in cultivation for at least 20 generations nor has it diverged from wild varieties.

1.02

Answer not scored because conditions for scoring (1.01 must = y) were not met

1.03

Answer not scored because conditions for scoring (1.01 must = y) were not met

2.01

(1)"Geographic distribution Native : Australia. Exotic : China, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Haiti, India, Israel, Kenya, Malawi, Palestine, Puerto Rico, Singapore, South Africa, Thailand, Uganda, United States of America" (2)"Native to eastern and southern Australia"

(1)nternational Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (2)Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI

2.02

Native range well known

2.03

(1)"Biophysical limits: Altitude: 0-900 m, Mean annual temperature: 4-30 deg. C, Mean annual rainfall: 500-4 000 mm .. Hardy to drought and frost" (2)" Tolerates temperatures down to at least -7°c in Australian gardens, and plants are said to tolerate frost in South Africa."

(1)nternational Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (2)Webpage: Plants for A Future: Edible, Medicinal ans Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Accessed 2008. http://www.pfaf.org/index.php

2.04

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "Sheoak was introduced to the United States near the turn of the century. It is widely distributed in southern Florida and is also found in California, Arizona, and Hawaii "

USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

2.05

"The swamp she-oak has been extensively planted outside its natural habitat. It was introduced into Cyprus for trial in marshes and saline soils; introduced into Kenya in 1910, and commonly planted outside forest areas; it has been planted successfully in the Nilgiri Hills in the southwest of the Indian Peninsula"

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

3.01

"(naturalized) … in Hawaii persisting and extensively spreading by root suckers"

Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI

3.02

Unknown. May be an amenity weed, however, it is unknown whether effects are cuased by intentionally planted rather than escaped plants "The prolific suckering of C. glauca creates an impenetrable thicket and its widespreading root-system disrupts pavements and lawns, and will enter the joints of sewer lines and water main pipes to eventually clog and break the pipes."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

3.03

No evidence

3.04

(1)"It is the most aggressive ironwood in Hawai‘I (Smith, 1985; p. 187). "Coastal beaches, sandy banks. In the native range, this tree occurs on saline swamp flats, on estuarine floodplains, wetland forests and along salt marshes. The tree is nitrogen-fixing and not as salt tolerant as [Casuarina equisetifolia]. The tree produces large amounts of litter that prevent the growth and establishment of native species" (2)In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "The presence of Casuarina stands in Florida usurps nesting places in the only remaining nesting areas in the United States for the American crocodile, and in one of the most productive nesting areas remaining for loggerhead and green sea turtles. Terrestrial fauna are not exempt from threats posed by the spread of Casuarina. Areas inhabited by the Gopher Tortoise are threatened with invasion by Casuarina, which would result in the departure of the tortoise."

(1)Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project. Webpage: Plant Threats to Pacific Ecosystems. Accessed 2008. http://www.hear.org/pier/scientificnames/index.html (2)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

3.05

"All 3 species of sheoak (C. equisetifolia, C. glauca and C. cunninghamiana) are listed as noxious weeds (prohibited aquatic plants, Class 1) in Florida"

USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

4.01

No "Bark gray-brown, finely fissured and scaly. Branchlets drooping"

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Flora Zambesiaca eFloras Webpage. Accessed 2008. http://apps.kew.org/efloras/search.do?reset=true

4.02

(1)"Casuarina glauca is thought to posses allelopathic properties." (2)"The allelopathic effects of the Egyptian soils under ... Casuarina glauca and Eucalyptus camaldulensis trees and the leaf litter extracts of these trees were bioassayed against the same tree seeds and seedlings and against maize and rice grains during two successive seasons 1999 and 2000. The results showed that the topsoil from under the three species had harmful effects and significantly reduced total seed germination, delayed the germination and reduced survival percent after germination of the same tree seeds."

(1)Webpage: Maritime Hammock Preserve Plant List. Accessed 2008. http://www.maritimehammockpreserve.org/plants_album.html (2)El-Baha, A.M. 2003. Allelopathic effects of some multipurpose tree species on germination and growth of same tree seeds and some field crops. Alexandria Journal of Agricultural Research, 48(3): 227-237

4.03

Not parasitic

USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service Staff. 2008. Parasitic Plant Genera List

4.04

"Fodder: Cattle, goats and sheep will graze C. glauca seedlings, suckers and branchlets. The ground foliage has been used as an ingredient in chicken feed and also has value as a drought fodder"

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

4.05

"Fodder: Cattle, goats and sheep will graze C. glauca seedlings, suckers and branchlets. The ground foliage has been used as an ingredient in chicken feed and also has value as a drought fodder"

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

4.06

"A member of the order Coleoptera, Stromatium fluvum, attacks only C. glauca; the larval galleries occupy the inner bark, the sapwood and the heartwood. The wood-borer makes the stem susceptible to wind damage and rot. Casuarina bacterial wilt (CBW), Pseudomonas olanacearum, is a pathogen that attacks the roots of trees of all ages. In Egypt, serious insect pests of C. glauca are the dry-wood termite, Kalotermes flavicollis, and the coleopteran wood-borers Stromatium fulvum and Macrotema palmata. The larval stage of M. palmata bores into oth the sapwood and the heartwood of living trees for many years. Attack by the termites icrotermes michaelseni and Ancistrotermes latinotus has reduced survival of the species to 33% on some sites in Zimbabwe"

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

4.07

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "Apart from the hazards that Casuarina presents to its habitat and to other plants and animals, it also poses a problem to humans because it is a source of respiratory irritation. Casuarina pollen can cause allergic reactions symptomized by eye irritation, runny-nose, and hoarseness or sore throat"

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

4.08

n regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "While reportedly difficult to start burning, it will burn when green and the ashes retain heat for a long time. It has a calorific value of 4,950 cals., 8,910 Btu's and has been called "the best firewood in the world"

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

4.09

"Requires a well-drained moisture-retentive soil in full sun"

Webpage: Plants for A Future: Edible, Medicinal ans Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Accessed 2008. http://www.pfaf.org/index.php

4.10

(1)"Casuarina glauca is an introduced tree species to India. It is one the few species that can grow successfully in salt effected sites. C. Glauca was investigated for biomass production at highly sodic soil sites (pH 8.6–10.5); it was found to be promising in terms of growth and productivity." (2)"Thrives under all conditions from the Mallee to salty coastal swamps … The tree is recommended for planting … in brackish country where few other trees survive"

(1)Goel, V.L. and H.M. Behl. 2005. Growth and productivity assessment of Casuarina glauca Sieb. Ex. Spreng on sodic soil sites. Bioresource Technology 96(12): 1399-1404 (2)Lord, E.E. 1948. Shrubs and trees for Austalian gardens. Melbourne and Sydney, Lothian Publishing Co. Pty. Ltd.

4.11

Not a vine or woody liana

4.12

"The prolific suckering of C. glauca creates an impenetrable thicket and its widespreading root-system disrupts pavements and lawns"

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Not Poaceae

5.03

"Casuarina species are capable of forming symbiotic N2-fixing associations with the soil actinomycetes, Frankia. This symbiotic association results in N2 fixation rates comparable to nodulated legumes. It accounts to a large extent for the capacity of Casuarina to occupy nitrogen poor sites such as disturbed areas and desert or coastal dunes, and for its use in land reclamation, dune stabilization, and the establishment of forested stands"

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

5.04

Not a geophyte

6.01

"In its native range this species is found in a narrow belt along the southeastern coast of Australia, commonly fringing mangroves along estuaries or other flats under tidal influence."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

6.02

"Propagation Methods Each cone contains about 70 seeds, with an average germination rate of 60%."

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

6.03

(1)"Closely related to C. cunninghamiana, though somewhat less hardy, it often hybridises in the wild with that species" (2)"Casuarina cunninghamiana Miq. River sheoak, Casuarina equisetifolia L. Australian-pine Casuarina glauca Seiber gray sheoak These species hybridize with each other "

(1)Webpage: Plants for A Future: Edible, Medicinal ans Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Accessed 2008. http://www.pfaf.org/index.php (2)USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

6.04

Possibly "Successful asexual propagation techniques with casuarinas have been developed in China using water and soil cultures. "

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

6.05

"Casuarinaceae … Flowers small and inconspicous, wind-pollinated"

Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI

6.06

"Root suckers ubiquitous, even in absence of mother tree injury. Readily coppices from stump … Foliage of root suckers often joins lower branches such that open-grown trees may have "crown" extending to ground."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

6.07

"Minimum seed bearing age is 4-5 years, although there are reports of 1-2 years in stress environments (Morton 1980). Good seed crops occur annually (Schopmeyer 1974). Seeds in a moist medium have germinated after exposure to light for 6 hours per day for 4 to 6 weeks. No pre-germination treatment is needed"

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

7.01

Because this species readily colonizes disturbed habitats and the seeds are small "Fruit a tiny, 1-seeded, winged nutlet (samara), formed in woody cone-like clusters (fruiting heads), these brown, to 1.8 cm (2/3 in) long and 0.9 cm (1/3 in) wide."

Langeland, K.A. and K. Craddock Burks. 1998. Identification and Biology of Non-Native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas. University of Florida. 166 pages

7.02

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "Early promoters of Casuarina species in Florida envisioned a wide variety of applications, including hardwood, pulpwood, and tannin, as well as the abundant sprouts serving as a source of forage for cattle."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

7.03

Not cultivated alongside produce

7.04

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "off-site colonizer;seed carried by wind; postfire years 1 and 2 off-site colonizer; seed carried by ... water"

USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

7.05

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "off-site colonizer;seed carried by wind; postfire years 1 and 2 off-site colonizer; seed carried by ... water"

USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

7.06

No based on fruit morphology, see the following (1)"Casuarinaceae .. Fruit a 1-seeded, flattened apically winged nut, the nuts arranged in ovoid or cylindrical, somewhat woody cones." (2)Seeds are eaten by birds but likely they are acting as predators, not dispersers (In regards to an unnamed Casuarina spp.) "Glossy Black-Cockatoos love Casuarina seeds. Note the size and strength of the bill, enabling them to crack these hard seeds"

(1)Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI (2)Dahlem, C. and M. Dahlem. Website: Birds of Australia. Accessed 2008. http://www.mdahlem.net/birds/ozbirds.php

7.07

No hooks or barbs on fruit

7.08

Seed dispersed by wind and water primarily

8.01

(1)In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally. "It produces thousands of wind born seeds per plant and reproduces prodigiously via coppicing to produce close, impenetrable stands." (2)"There are between 700,000 - 970,000 seeds per kilo"

(1)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy (2)Webpage: Plants for A Future: Edible, Medicinal ans Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Accessed 2008. http://www.pfaf.org/index.php

8.02

"Seed storage behaviour is orthodox. There is a relative ease of storing seed for long periods under cool conditions. A 50% reduction in viability has been reported after 14-17 years in storage."

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

8.03

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "Chemicals, such as 2,4,5-T, 2,4-D, or Garlon 3A, can be used to eradicate sheoak"

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

8.04

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia in general "Sheoak less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter can sucker following fire. Trees larger than this usually die"

USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

8.05

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "Casuarina has no natural enemies in its North American distribution and has a phenomenal growth rate that outpaces most other plants. These characteristics explain Casuarina's ability to outcompete all native endemics."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy