Cardiospermum grandiflorum Sw. Family - Sapindaceae. Common Names(s) - showy balloonvine. Synonym(s) - NA.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

y

1

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

n

1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

18

Notes

Source

1.01

No evidence

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Native to the Neotropics and Africa.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.02

2.03

(1)Grows in Zones 9-11

(1)Clifton, J. 2005. Climbing Gardens: Adding Height and Structure to Your Garden. Frances Lincoln ltd. London.

2.04

(1)Native to the Neotropics and Africa.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.05

(1)Australia, South Africa [invasive in natural areas], Hawaii, Cook Islands, Canary Islands

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

3.01

(1)escaping and apparently naturalized in Manoa Valley (primarily along Manoa Stream) and in downtown Honolulu, Oahu. (2)Notes: Seedlings germinate most of the year on disturbed land. Plants spread over ground or climb trees and shrubs. Common in moist gullies along the warm temperate to tropical coast of Qld and NSW [Australia] (3)"Most of the plant invader’s success depends on disturbed environments. Cyclone or flood damage can enable exotics to gain an immediate foothold, thus accelerating invasion rates. For example, on Rarotonga (Cook Islands), the spread of Cardiospermum grandiflorum was triggered by the hurricane Sally in 1986 (E. Saul, pers. comm.)." (4)Evidence of naturalization? Yes [South Africa, Kruger N.P.]

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=&ibra=all&card=V01 [Accessed 23 June 2008] (3)Meyer, J-Y. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). Pp. 85-114 in G, Sherley (ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. (4)Foxcroft, L. C., David M. Richardson and John R. U. Wilson. 2008. Ornamental Plants as Invasive Aliens: Problems and Solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management 41:32–51.

3.02

(1)Balloon vine is a densely-growing, climbing herb. The main mode of climbing is via the extensive tendrils, which twirl around supporting structure and other plants. Infestations of this weed smother other plants and prevent them from receiving the sunlight they need to photosynthesise. It is commonly found in south-east Queensland along waterways, roadsides and in disturbed sites. Forest edges are likely sites for invasion, and the vines will often grow right into the canopy of the trees. [invades disturbed habitats with negative ecological effects; see 3.04]

(1)http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/xbcr/dpi/IPA-Balloon-Heart-Seed-Vine-PP66.pdf [Accessed 23 June 2008]

3.03

(1)The species constituting immediate threat to forest resources in the region were C. odorata, Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit., Cardiospermum grandiflorum Swartz. And Centrosema pubescens. [ability to smother trees can reduce forestry yields] (2)The major weeds of plantation forests in the southern and western Pacific.[includes C. grandiflorum, does not mention costs or impacts to forestry operations]

(1)Anning, A. K. and K. Yeboah-Gyan. 2007. Diversity and distribution of invasive weeds in Ashanti Region, Ghana African Journal of Ecology 45(3): 355–360. (2)Waterhouse, D.F. 1997. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture and plantation forestry in the southern and western Pacific. ACIAR Monograph No. 44. 99p.

3.04

(1)"Balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum) is an invasive climber growing in damp situations; often near river banks. It forms dense but localised infestations and can grow to enormous lengths and is capable of smothering a tree 10m tall. It competes with, and smothers, indigenous plant species by preventing their ability to effectively undergo photosynthesis. C. grandiflorum invades forest margins, watercourses and urban open spaces in subtropical regions" (2)"This fast growing plant forms large and dense smothering curtains of tangled stems that impede the growth of supporting vegetation, eventually killing trees by the heavy weight. Seedlings of native shrubs and tress are unable to establish under stands of this plant. The plant tolerates periodic inundation and the vigorous growth destroys riparian forests in Australia.(3)Cardiospermum grandiflorum (kopūpū takaviri?, balloon vine), an invasive vine, is present only on Rarotonga, where it is already widespread. It is invasive in Australia and Hawai‘i. On Rarotonga, it teams up with Mikania micrantha to climb and sometimes overtop vegetation.(4)Of 19 exotic species that are considered particularly invasive of the sub-tropical rainforests of south-eastern Queensland and northern N.S.W., 70 per cent are vines. Examples of what is considered to be the “most destructive life form” (ANPWS, 1991) of rainforests include cats-claw creeper (Macfadyena unguis-cati), Madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia), balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum)

(1)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1346&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 23 June 2008] (2)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. (3)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.(4)Grice, A.C. and Setter, M.J. 2003. Weeds of Rainforests and Associated Ecosystems. Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Rainforest Ecology and Management. Rainforest CRC, Cairns. 116 pp.

3.05

(1)Principal weed in Australia. (2)Recognized as noxious weed in the state of Tennessee, Texas and several other states.(3)Noxious weed in most southern states in the U.S. (4)Balloonvine (Cardiospermum halicacabum), a summer annual, is rapidly becoming a serious problem for soybean producers, particularly seed producers since the seeds are of a similar size. Germination was maximum at 95 deg F and emergence greatest from depths of 0.5-2 inches. Effective herbicides are listed.

(1)An electronic atlas of weed and invasive species. CD-ROM database. (2)http://www.prairiefrontier.com/pages/noxiousweeds3.html (3)http://2bnthewild.com/plants/H423.htm (4)Johnston, S. K.; Jolley, E. R.; Murray, D. S. 1977. Weed watch - balloonvine. Weeds Today. Vol.9, No.1, p.10

4.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.02

No evidence [well-studied weed]

4.03

No evidence

4.04

(1)Leaves eaten by iguanas

(1)Rand, A. S., Beverly A. Dugan, Hebe Monteza and Dalixa Vianda. 1990. The Diet of a Generalized Folivore: Iguana iguana in Panama. Journal of Herpetology 24(2): 211-214.

4.05

(1)Cardiospermin. "Found in the leaves of Cardiospermum grandiflorum…Toxic" [no information on how toxicity is manifested]

(1)Harborne, J. B., H. Baxter and G. P. Moss. 1998. Phytochemical Dictionary: A Handbook of Bioactive Compounds from Plants. Second Edition. Taylor and Francis Ltd. London, UK.

4.06

No evidence of serious economic pests associated with species [despite being a widespread and well-studied weed] (1)Abstract Soapberry bugs are worldwide seed predators of plants in the family Sapindaceae. Australian sapinds are diverse and widespread, consisting of about 200 native trees and shrubs. This flora also includes two introduced environmental weeds, plus cultivated lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) and rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.). Accordingly, Australian soapberry bugs may be significant in ecology, conservation and agriculture. Here we provide the first account of their ecology. We find five species of Leptocoris Hahn in Australia, and list sapinds that do and do not serve as reproductive hosts. From museum and field records we map the continental distributions of the insects and primary hosts. Frequency of occupation varies among host species, and the number of hosts varies among the insects. In addition, differences in body size and beak length are related to host use. For example, the long-beaked Leptocoris tagalicus Burmeister is highly polyphagous in eastern rainforests, where it occurs on at least 10 native and non-native hosts. It aggregates on hosts with immature fruit and commences feeding before fruits dehisce. Most of its continental range, however, matches that of a single dryland tree, Atalaya hemiglauca F. Muell., which has comparatively unprotected seeds. The taxon includes a smaller and shorter-beaked form that is closely associated with Atalaya, and appears to be taxonomically distinct. The other widespread soapberry bug is the endemic Leptocoris mitellatus Bergroth. It too is short-beaked, and colonises hosts phenologically later than L. tagalicus, as seeds become more accessible in open capsules. Continentally its distribution is more southerly and corresponds mainly to that of Alectryon oleifolius Desf. Among all host species, the non-native environmental weeds Cardiospermum L. and Koelreuteria Laxm. are most consistently attacked, principally by L. tagalicus. These recent host shifts have biocontrol implications. In contrast, the sapinds planted as fruit crops appear to be less frequently used at present and mainly by the longer-beaked species. (2)Surveys were undertaken in Argentina and Brazil to find potential biological control agents for balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum). A number of potential agents have been introduced into quarantine laboratories including a seed-feeding butterfly (Chlorostrymon simaethis), a sap-sucking bug, a phytophagous wasp and, a rust fungus (Puccinia arechavaletae). Unfortunately further work on the bug had to be abandoned after it was found that it could develop on non-target species and the wasp culture could not be maintained. Host range testing on the butterfly and fungus is proceeding.

(1)Scott P Carroll, Jenella E Loye, Hugh Dingle, Michael Mathieson, Myron P Zalucki .2005. Ecology of Leptocoris Hahn (Hemiptera: Rhopalidae) soapberry bugs in Australia Australian Journal of Entomology 44 (4) , 344–353 (2)http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?PID=1&ToolID=63&ItemID=2963 [Accessed 24 June 2008]

4.07

No evidence [despite being a widespread and well-studied weed]

4.08

No evidence [despite being a widespread and well-studied weed]

4.09

(1)"It has also been noted that optimal growth takes place in well-lit (sunny) locations, although it is capable of germinating in dark conditions." [seed germination not sufficient to answer yes] (2) Tolerates flooding and part shade, but prefers full sun and well-drained soil.

(1)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1346&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 23 June 2008] (2)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=162 [Accessed 23 June 2008]

4.10

Most references mention moist, well-drained soil without bringing up specific soil types, so probably grows in a wide range of soils (1)Prefers full sun, well-drained soil. (2)Balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum) prefers moist soils and will tolerate occasional flooding. (3)Seedlings germinate most of the year on disturbed land.

(1)http://www.arc.govt.nz/environment/plants-and-animals/search-for-plants/index.cfm?63E0F20E-14C2-3D2D-B905-50098EBBE4B9&plantcode=Cargra [Accessed 23 June 2008] (2)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1346&fr=1&sts= [Accessed 23 June 2008] (3)http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=nsw&s=&region=nan&card=V01 [Accessed 23 June 2008]

4.11

(1)Perennial vine (2)"Balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum) is an invasive tendril climber growing in damp situations, often near river banks. It forms dense but localised infestations and competes with, and smothers, indigenous plant species."

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1346&fr=1&sts= [Accessed 23 June 2008]

4.12

No evidence

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Sapindaceae

5.03

Sapindaceae

5.04

(1)"Seedlings and smaller plants can be pulled or dug out, the taproot must be removed to prevent regrowth" (2)Competes above and below ground with a thick mat of tubers. Chokes out desirable native species, particularly in the riparian zone.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. (2)http://www.namoi.cma.nsw.gov.au/attachments/weedsreport_results.pdf [Accessed 23 June 2008]

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)"It is a prolific seed producer and seeds are dispersed by water and wind."

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

6.03

Unknown [no information]

6.04

Possibly, as related species is self-compatible (1)Flowers functionally unisexual, zygomorphic, in axillary racemiform thyrses; cincinni more than 4, usually in more than one whorl. (2)'Geitonogamy and xenogamy operate, the former with 100% success and the latter with 66%.' 'The occurrence of two sexual phases on this functionally monoecious plant might be a strategy for geitonogamous reproduction. Experimental manipulation of selfing through geitonogamy has resulted in 100% fruit, showing that the taxon has adapted to selfing through geitonogamy.'

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. 2005. Vines and Climbing Plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 51: 1-483. (2)Das, R. K. et al. 1997. Sexual system and pollination ecology of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae). Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 94(2): 333- 341.

6.05

Related species with similar floral morphology (1)Bees, wasps, flies and butterflies are involved in the pollination of C. halicacabum.(2)Pollination is by insects such as flies, bees etc.

(1)Das, R. K. et al. 1997. Sexual system and pollination ecology of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae). Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 94(2): 333- 341.(2)Sharma, O. P. 1993. Plant Taxonomy. Tata McGraw-Hill. New Delhi, India.

6.06

(1)Capsules can be carried by wind and float freely on water, dispersing the plant along waterways. Also regrows from root fragments.(2)Black seeds in large, hairy, inflated papery capsules, float on water or blown by wind. Also spreads vegetatively. Invades moist areas, road edges. Smothers host plants, prevents native regeneration. (3)Seed capsules are spread by wind and water, and spreads also by suckering and root fragments.

(1)http://www.weeds.crc.org.au/documents/fs61_garden%20weeds_wind.pdf [Accessed 23 June 2008] (2)http://www.arc.govt.nz/albany/fms/main/Documents/Environment/Plants%20and%20animals/pest%20plants.pdf [Accessed 23 June 2008] (3)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=162 [Accessed 23 June 2008]

6.07

Assume that C. grandiflorum has a similar life history as related C. halicacabum (1)Produce inflorescence during the first year of vegetative growth [description of C. halicacabum] (2)Cardiospermum halicacabum…"grows 7-10' in a single season, and small white flowers are produced during the summer...Cardiospermum grandiflorum...is more vigorous than C. halicacabum (it grows through tree canopies in the tropics, to which it is native)" (3)Cardiospermum grandiflorum Sw...Annual slightly woody climber; stems densely to sparsely hirsute with long brown crisped hairs [other references categorize C. grandiflorum as a perennial vine]

(1)Das, R. K. et al. 1997. Sexual system and pollination ecology of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae). Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 94(2): 333- 341. (2)Armitage, A. M., A. Kays, C. Johnson and J. Laushman. 2001. Armitage's Manual of Annuals, Biennials, and Half-hardy Perennials. Timber Press. Portland, OR. (3)http://apps.kew.org/efloras/namedetail.do;jsessionid=E02F4DAEC981DBD18BEE598F48227503?flora=fz&qry=key&taxon=1744&keyid=432 [Accessed 24 June 2008]

7.01

(1)Often dumped on bushland edges. The capsules can be carried by wind and float freely on water, dispersing the plant along waterways. Also regrows from root fragments.

(1)http://www.weedsbluemountains.org.au/show_weed_botanical.asp?id=4 [Accessed 23 June 2008]

7.02

(1)For ornamental purposes: Balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum) was probably introduced to Australia as an ornamental garden creeper

(1)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1346&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 23 June 2008]

7.03

No evidence [not grown with produce]

7.04

(1)Dispersal: Dispersed by seeds, which are transported by wind and water, mostly while attached to membranous inner walls of fruit.

(1)http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=&ibra=all&card=V01 [Accessed 23 June 2008]

7.05

(1)Dispersal: Dispersed by seeds, which are transported by wind and water, mostly while attached to membranous inner walls of fruit. (2)Balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum) seeds float in water

(1)http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=&ibra=all&card=V01 [Accessed 23 June 2008] (2)http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/Sheets/vines/V%20Balloon%20vine.htm [Accessed 23 June 2008]

7.06

(1)"Fruit a membranous, inflated, 3-angled, septicidal capsule…Seeds subglobose, 6-7 mm in diameter, aril suborbicular." [despite presence of an aril, no references mention bird dispersal of this well-documented weed]

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

7.07

No means of external attachment

7.08

Unknown [no information on gut passage or survival]

8.01

(1)Capsule membranaceous, inflated, ellipsoid or ovoid, 3-5.5 cm long, stramineous when ripe. Seed one per locule, spherical, black, 4-5.5 mm in diameter, with a white, obtusetriangular hilum.

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. 2005. Vines and Climbing Plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 51: 1-483.

8.02

(1)Seed is only viable for 18 months or so. [seeds survive >1 year, sufficient to answer yes] (2)Seed longevity is estimated to be around 2 years (3)"the hard seeds remained viable within the soil for many years or were brought in by floodwater as the fruit has an inflated papery capsule that readily floats."

(1)http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/Sheets/vines/V%20Balloon%20vine.htm [Accessed 23 June 2008] (2)Vivian-Smith, G and Panetta D. 2002. Going with the Flow: Dispersal of Invasive Vines in Coastal Catchments. Coast to Coast, Alan Fletcher Research Station, Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Queensland, Australia. (3)Harden, G. W., M. D.Fox and B. J.Fox. 2004. Monitoring and assessment of restoration of a rainforest remnant at Wingham Brush, NSW. Austral Ecology 29(5): 489-507.

8.03

(1)"Seedlings and smaller plants can be pulled or dug out, the taproot must be removed to prevent regrowth. Larger vines are cut and the taproot dug out, cut stumps can be treated with herbicide. Follow-up programmes are necessary to control seedlings and regrowth." [retreatment of large vines required, and growth over other vegetation increases likelihood of damage to non-target species] (2)Chemical: Chemical management (herbicides) of balloon vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum) is difficult due to their close proximity to water sources. Furthermore, native species may be affected by the treatment. However, limited success is met with the use of glyphosate

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. (2)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1346&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 23 June 2008]

8.04

(1)"Seedlings and smaller plants can be pulled or dug out, the taproot must be removed to prevent regrowth." [plants tolerate cutting and top-removal] (2)Although plant re-grows from root fragments, it reproduces mainly by seeds

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. (2)http://www.usda-sabcl.org/projects/Emergentweeds.htm [Accessed 25 June 2008]

8.05

Unknown