Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 12
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Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i. Information on Risk Assessments Original risk assessment |
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Aleurites moluccana (Common names- kukui, candlenut tree)
- Synomyms - Aleurites javanicus Gand., Aleurites pentaphyllus Wall. ex
Langeron, Aleurites remyi Sherff, Aleurites trilobus J. R. Forst. & G. Forst., Jatropha moluccana L. Family - Euphorbiaceae |
Answer | Score | |
| 1.01 | Is the species highly domesticated? | n | 0 |
| 1.02 | Has the species become naturalized where grown? | y | |
| 1.03 | Does the species have weedy races? | n | |
| 2.01 | Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical” | 2 | |
| 2.02 | Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2 | 2 | |
| 2.03 | Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility) | y | 1 |
| 2.04 | Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates | y | 1 |
| 2.05 | Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2 | y | |
| 3.01 | Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05 | y | 2 |
| 3.02 | Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.03 | Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.04 | Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | y | 4 |
| 3.05 | Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | y | 2 |
| 4.01 | Produces spines, thorns or burrs | n | 0 |
| 4.02 | Allelopathic | n | 0 |
| 4.03 | Parasitic | n | 0 |
| 4.04 | Unpalatable to grazing animals | ||
| 4.05 | Toxic to animals | y | 1 |
| 4.06 | Host for recognized pests and pathogens | n | 0 |
| 4.07 | Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans | y | 1 |
| 4.08 | Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems | n | 0 |
| 4.09 | Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle | y | 1 |
| 4.1 | Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island) | y | 1 |
| 4.11 | Climbing or smothering growth habit | n | 0 |
| 4.12 | Forms dense thickets | y | 1 |
| 5.01 | Aquatic | n | 0 |
| 5.02 | Grass | n | 0 |
| 5.03 | Nitrogen fixing woody plant | n | 0 |
| 5.04 | Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers) | n | 0 |
| 6.01 | Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat | n | 0 |
| 6.02 | Produces viable seed. | y | 1 |
| 6.03 | Hybridizes naturally | ||
| 6.04 | Self-compatible or apomictic | y | 1 |
| 6.05 | Requires specialist pollinators | n | 0 |
| 6.06 | Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation | n | -1 |
| 6.07 | Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1 | 3 | 0 |
| 7.01 | Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas) | n | -1 |
| 7.02 | Propagules dispersed intentionally by people | y | 1 |
| 7.03 | Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant | n | -1 |
| 7.04 | Propagules adapted to wind dispersal | n | -1 |
| 7.05 | Propagules water dispersed | y | 1 |
| 7.06 | Propagules bird dispersed | n | -1 |
| 7.07 | Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally) | n | -1 |
| 7.08 | Propagules survive passage through the gut | n | -1 |
| 8.01 | Prolific seed production (>1000/m2) | n | -1 |
| 8.02 | Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr) | y | 1 |
| 8.03 | Well controlled by herbicides | y | -1 |
| 8.04 | Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire | y | 1 |
| 8.05 | Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents) | ||
| Total score: | 12 | ||
Supporting data:
| Notes | Reference | |
| 1.01 | No evidence | |
| 1.02 | widely cultivated & naturalized in tropics, exact native range obscure | http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2191 |
| 1.03 | Known varieties include: katoi, remyi, aulanii, a cultivar from New Caledonia and a variety from Vanuatu without any apparent toxic effects. [No evidence of these varieties being weedy]. | Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 2.01 |
(1)ASIA-TEMPERATE China: China Eastern Asia: Taiwan ASIA-TROPICAL Indian Subcontinent: India; Sri Lanka Indo-China: Cambodia; Myanmar; Thailand; Vietnam Malesia: Indonesia; Malaysia; Papua New Guinea; Philippines AUSTRALASIA Australia: Australia - Queensland [n.] Other: widely cultivated & naturalized in tropics, exact native range obscure (2)"Probably originally native to Malaysia or Indonesia but very early transported by humans throughout Southeast Asia, Malenesia, and the western Pacific." (3)"Native to Malesia, although its precise native range is essentially impossible to determine because of its early spread by man, now widespread in many tropical areas; in Hawaii a Polynesian introduction, now a conspicuous component of mesic valley vegetation ..." |
(1)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2191 (2)Staples, W George and Derral H Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu. Hawaii. Page 281 (3)Wagner, W. L. Herbst, D. L. and Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. Pae 598.n |
| 2.02 | widely cultivated & naturalized in tropics, exact native range obscure | http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2191 |
| 2.03 | (1)"Altitude range: 0 - 700 m" (2)"Candlenut trees thrive in moist tropical regions, up to 1,200 m altitude. Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones." (3)"Grows to elevations of 2000 m on a variety of soils." | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Aleurites_moluccana.html#Uses (3)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/aleurites_moluccana.htm |
| 2.04 |
(1)ASIA-TEMPERATE China: China Eastern Asia: Taiwan ASIA-TROPICAL Indian Subcontinent: India; Sri Lanka Indo-China: Cambodia; Myanmar; Thailand; Vietnam Malesia: Indonesia; Malaysia; Papua New Guinea; Philippines AUSTRALASIA Australia: Australia - Queensland [n.] Other: widely cultivated & naturalized in tropics, exact native range obscure (2)"Probably originally native to Malaysia or Indonesia but very early transported by humans throughout Southeast Asia, Malenesia, and the western Pacific." (3)"Native to Malesia, although its precise native range is essentially impossible to determine because of its early spread by man, now widespread in many tropical areas; in Hawaii a Polynesian introduction, now a conspicuous component of mesic valley vegetation ..." |
(1)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2191 (2)Staples, W George and Derral H Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu. Hawaii. Page 281 (3)Wagner, W. L. Herbst, D. L. and Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. Pae 598.n |
| 2.05 | widely cultivated & naturalized in tropics, exact native range obscure | http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2191 |
| 3.01 | widely cultivated & naturalized in tropics, exact native range obscure | http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2191 |
| 3.02 | No evidence | |
| 3.03 | No evidence | |
| 3.04 | REFERENCE 6 IS THE EVIDENCE USED TO ANSWER "YES". THE OTHER REFERENCES DO NOT CONTAIN ADEQUATE EVIDENCE (1) "The major environmental weeds of Christmas Island are Adenanthera pavonina, Aleurites moluccana, Castilla elastica, Clausena excavata, Cordia curassavica, Delonix regia, Ficus elastica, Hevea brasiliensis, Mikania micrantha, Mucuna albertisii, Pithecellobium dulce, Pterocarpus indicus, Schefflera actinophylla, Spathodea campanulata and Tecoma stans . "; (2)Christmas Island: Several exotic trees, shrubs and vines have established in the settled areas and disturbed areas throughout the island. So far, intact rainforest has not been invaded but forest margins have been colonised by exotics such as coffee bush, Clausena excavata, African Tulip Tree and Stenolobium stans.Some exotic species , such as poinciana and candle nut which were widely planted in previous rehabilitation operations, require control to prevent them spreading in disturbed areas [Potential spread in of Aleurites in disturbed areas, has not significantly invaded native forest] (3)NOT on Australia "garden thugs" list (4)One person surveyed out of more than 20 people considered it a MINOR threat in Australia (NSW) (5)Has become a "conspicuous component of mesic valley vegetation" in Hawaii [wording does not indicate that it is a problem] (6)"The major threat to Munroidendron racemosum is competition with alien plant species, such as Aleurites moluccana" "The major threats to Pteralyxia kauaiensis are...competition with...Aleurites moluccana" "Diellia pallida....grows on bare soil on steep, rocky, dry slopes in lowland mesic forests, from 520 to 915 m ...The major threats to this species include competition with Aleurites moluccana (kukui)" (7)"Kukui has naturalized in several Pacific Islands, particularly in Hawaii and has the potential to become established outside of cultivation. Despite this, kukui is rarely considered a harmful invasive or pest species." | (1)Swarbrick, J. T.; Hart, R. (2001) Environmental weeds of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) and their management. Plant Protection Quarterly, 2001, Vol.16, No.2, pp.54-57, 2 ref. (2)http://www.ea.gov.au/parks/christmas/flora.html (3)Randall, R. 2001. Garden Thugs. Plant Protection Quarterly (4)http://www.fncw.nsw.gov.au/doc_downloads/weed_list_187.doc (5) Wagner et al. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press.(6)http://policy.fws.gov/library/00fr66807.html (7)Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 3.05 |
(1)K.A. Langeland and R.K. Stocker. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural
Areas of Florida Available at: <http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_WG209> (2)http://www.fleppc.org/01list.htm |
(1)A. fordii was suggested to invade natural area of Florida and subjcted to control measure. (2)Florida:Aleurites fordii, Category II - Invasive exotics that have increased in abundance or frequency but have not yet altered Florida plant communities to the extent shown by Category I species. |
| 4.01 | No evidence of such structures. | Wagner, W. L. Herbst, D. L. and Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. Pae 598.n |
| 4.02 | Not allelopathic | http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=ALMO2 |
| 4.03 | No evidence | |
| 4.04 | Don’t know. | |
| 4.05 | "Vertebrate poisons: mammals" | http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?2191 |
| 4.06 |
(1)The following fungi and insect pests were listed to be associated with A.
moluccana:
Ganoderma lucidum (basal stem rot: Hevea spp.) fungus Mycosphaerella aleuritis fungus Aspidiotus nerii (aucuba scale) insect Attacus atlas (atlas moth) insect Bactrocera psidii (South Sea guava fruit fly) insect Pinnaspis strachani (lesser snow scale) insect Sophonia rufofascia (two-spotted leafhopper) insect (2)"Following fungi are known to attack candlenut-oil tree: Cephalosporium sp., Clitocybe tabescens, Fomes hawaiensis, Gloeosporium aleuriticum, Physalospora rhodina, Polyporus gilvus, Pythium ultimum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Sphaeronema reinkingii, Trametes corrugata, Xylaria curta, Ustulina deusta. Nematodes include Meloidogyne sp." [No evidence that the above are recognized pests]. |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Aleurites_moluccana.html#Uses |
| 4.07 | (1)"All parts of the tree are toxic, though most cases of human poisoning are caused by eating the seeds." (2)"Caution is advised in using the plant medicinally or for consumption, as all parts of the tree are toxic." | (1)Staples, W George and Derral H Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu. Hawaii. Page 281 (2)Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 4.08 | Probably not - an evergreen large tree growing in mesic to wet habitats. | |
| 4.09 | (1)"Shade tolerance- Intermediate (2)Kukui can grow in modest amount of shade, up to 25%" | (1)http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=ALMO2 (2)Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 4.1 | "Prefers light and medium textured soils, grows even on basalt, red loams, stony clay ground, sand, and limestone." | Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 4.11 | Not a climber. | (1)Staples, W George and Derral H Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu. Hawaii. Page 281 (2)Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 4.12 | (1)"A. moluccana is a large tree with an average height of 24 m and diameter of 80-150 cm (Dayan and Constantino, 1990), growing in dense stands through much of the humid tropics." | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 5.01 | "A. moluccana is a large tree with an average height of 24 m and diameter of 80-150 cm." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 5.02 | ||
| 5.03 | Nitrogen fixation- none. | http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=ALMO2 |
| 5.04 | ||
| 6.01 | No evidence | |
| 6.02 | "Usually propagated from seed, requiring 3–4 months to germinate. " | http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Aleurites_moluccana.html#Uses |
| 6.03 | Don’t know. | |
| 6.04 | (1)Flowers unisexual; calyx nearly globular, splitting into 2 or 3 lobes; petals narrowly oblanceolate, obtuse, white or cream colored, about 8 mm long. Staminate flowers numerous, pedicellate, with 15 to 20 stamens. Pistillate flowers few, sessile, preceding the staminate flowers, mostly solitary in the forks of the cymules. (2)cross pollination not required | (1)http://doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/94-9&10all.htm (2)http://www.daleysfruit.com.au/bushfood/candlenut.htm |
| 6.05 | No evidence | |
| 6.06 | Vegetative spread rate - none. | http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=ALMO2 |
| 6.07 | "Flowering and fruiting begins at 3-4 years old." | Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 7.01 | No evidence of the species being planted in heavily trafficked areas - also no evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment. | |
| 7.02 | "The oil from the seeds is used in the manufacture of paint, soap, shampoo, varnish and wood preservatives. The juice of the nuts can be taken internally to eradicate worms, while the seeds serve as a mild purgative. The seeds are also used to make palm sugar and as a flavouring. The soot from burnt seeds has been used in tattooing in Tonga." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 7.03 | "A. moluccana is valued for its wood and for oil from the nuts, for which it is grown in plantations and in silvopastoral systems." | CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
| 7.04 | (1)"fruit an indehiscent drupe, roundish, 5 cm or more in diameter, with thick rough hard shell making up 64–68% of fruit, difficult to separate from kernels; containing 1 or 2 seeds." (2)"Seeds 1-2, (2.3)3-4 cm in diameter, seed coat thick and very hard." [No evidence of adaptation for wind dispersal. Size of fruit suggests dispersal by gravity]. | (1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Aleurites_moluccana.html#Uses (2)Wagner, W. L. Herbst, D. L. and Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. Pae 598.n |
| 7.05 | "Abstract: Assemblages of drift disseminules [common species included Aleurites moluccana, Erythrina fusca, Mucuna gigantea, Cocos nucifera, Calophyllum inophyllum and Barringtonia asiatica] are described from beaches of cays in the southern Coral Sea. Most disseminule taxa are widespread, but their proportions in assemblages vary. The patterns are concordant with prevailing winds and currents, and suggest that disseminules drift towards the southern Great Barrier Reef area in distinct streams, from the east (Fiji, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, via the Chesterfield Reefs area) and from the north or northeast (possibly New Guinea and/or the Solomon Islands). Australia-derived disseminules make a minor contribution to assemblages on cays on the southern Great Barrier Reef but none further east. Human-derived flotsam increases in areas west of Chesterfield Reefs." | SMITH J M B PATTERNS OF DISSEMINULE DISPERSAL BY DRIFT IN THE SOUTHERN CORAL SEA New Zealand Journal of Botany 30 (1) : 57-67 1992 |
| 7.06 | Probably not - | |
| 7.07 | No evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment. | |
| 7.08 | No evidence of ingestion by animals. | |
| 8.01 | "Seeds broadly obovoid, cordate in dorsal view, dorsiventrally compressed, truncate or rarely minutely tipped at the micropylar end, always tapering towards the obtusely acuminate chalazal end, (20--)23--32 by 20--32 by (15--)18--24 mm, greyish, mottled brownish." [Probably not - relatively large seeds.] | http://www.nationaalherbarium.nl/euphorbs/specA/aleurites.htm |
| 8.02 | "It is propagated using seeds, which are recalcitrant." | |
| 8.03 | Where control is needed, trees can be cut down and stumps treated with glyphosate to prevent resprouting | http://www.hear.org/pier/almol.htm |
| 8.04 | (1)"Ability to regenerate rapidly." (2)Resprout ability- yes. (3)"Kukui regrows very well even after sever pruning, although it has a tendency to die after two or more prunings in quick succession. | (1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=ALMO2 (3)Elevitch, C. R. Ed. 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Hulualoa. Hawaii. Page 41. |
| 8.05 | Don’t know. |
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