Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Acacia nilotica


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 14


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.

Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Acacia nilotica; gum arabic tree

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

y

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

14

Supporting data:

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"The pioneer characteristics of A. nilotica (competing for space, light, water and nutrients, often on overgrazed lands) result in an invasive propensity and the formation of thorny thickets (Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in southern Africa incorporating the national weed list of South Africa. Memoirs, Botanical Survey of South Africa, No. 53, v + 658pp.; 185 ref.), and it has become a major weed in Australia and Java (Carter JO, Gutteridge RC (ed), Shelton HM, 1994. Acacia nilotica: a tree legume out of control. Forage-tree-legumes-in-tropical-agriculture. 1994, 338-351; 27 ref.). '

1.03

Ali, S. I.; Qaiser, M. (1980) Hybridization in Acacia nilotica (Mimosoideae) complex. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 1980, Vol.80, No.1, pp.69-77, 16 ref.

AB: A scheme for the identification of the nine subspecies of A. nilotica from morphological characters is presented, and data on the frequency of occurrence of phenolic constituents and on pollen fertility in each subspecies are tabulated. Wide variation was observed within and between subspecies and fruit characteristics within a single plant sometimes varied. In Pakistan, genoclinal variation near the coast was thought to result from hybridization between A. nilotica subsp. hemispherica and subsp. indica followed by introgressive hybridization with either parent to produce plants similar to those in subsp. adstringens and subsp. subalata. This was substantiated by a study of phenolic constituents and pollen fertility in putative hybrids. A. nilotica subsp. hemispherica is not known in Africa, and the possible involvement of subsp. leiocarpa in hybridizations with subsp. indica, thus generating variation in Africa, is discussed. However, evidence from the study of phenolic constituents suggests that subsp.

2.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Review of natural distribution
A. nilotica is naturally widespread in the drier areas of Africa, from Senegal to Egypt and southwards to South Africa (Natal), and through the Middle East to Asia as far eastwards as India and Bangladesh.
Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 32°N to 30°S

2.02

2.03

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 32°N to 30°S
It is found principally in the drier lowland tropical and subtropical regions, and in the Indian subcontinent usually below altitude 450 m, although some subspecies in Africa occur as high as altitude 2000m. It occurs in both unimodal and bimodal rainfall regions and in regular and irregular regimes (Nicholson et al., 1988). Average annual temperatures commonly vary from 15 to 28°C, although it can withstand daily maximum temperatures of 50°C, and is frost tender when young. Depending on the subspecies, it will tolerate both drought and flooded conditions for several months.
Descriptors
- Altitude range: 0 - 2000 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 250 - 1500 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; winter; bimodal; uniform
- Dry season duration: 5 - 10 months
- Mean annual temperature: 15 - 28ºC
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 25 - 42ºC
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 6 - 23ºC
- Absolute minimum temperature: > -1ºC

2.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Review of natural distribution
A. nilotica is naturally widespread in the drier areas of Africa, from Senegal to Egypt and southwards to South Africa (Natal), and through the Middle East to Asia as far eastwards as India and Bangladesh.
Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 32°N to 30°S

2.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

A. nilotica has been widely introduced and cultivated, including parts of the Indian subcontinent and Pakistan where it is not native, in the West Indies (Jamaica), Australia, Cyprus, Israel, Zanzibar, Cape Verde Islands, Iraq, Indonesia (Java, Lesser Sunda Islands), Vietnam, Nepal and Iran.

3.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"The pioneer characteristics of A. nilotica (competing for space, light, water and nutrients, often on overgrazed lands) result in an invasive propensity and the formation of thorny thickets (Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in southern Africa incorporating the national weed list of South Africa. Memoirs, Botanical Survey of South Africa, No. 53, v + 658pp.; 185 ref.), and it has become a major weed in Australia and Java (Carter JO, Gutteridge RC (ed), Shelton HM, 1994. Acacia nilotica: a tree legume out of control. Forage-tree-legumes-in-tropical-agriculture. 1994, 338-351; 27 ref.). '

3.02

no evidence

3.03

http://www.weeds.asn.au/wons/prickly_acacia.htm

Prickly acacia is a Weed of National Significance. restricts access by stock
Interferes with mustering
Causes soil degradation
Pasture decreases as infestations increase
Increases the cost of maintaining bores
Absorbs water which is for stock or pasture

3.04

(1)Burrows, W. H.; McIvor, J. G.; Andrew, M. H. (1986) Management of Australian savannas. Proceedings of the third Australian conference on tropical pastures, Rockhampton, Australia, 8-12th July, 1985., 1986, pp.1-10, 51 ref. (2)Brown, J.R. and Carter, J. 1998. Spatial and temporal patterns of exotic shrub invasion in an Australian tropical grassland. Landscape Ecology 13:93–102. (3)http://www.anbg.gov.au/weeds/weeds.html

(1)The role of management in minimizing animal production constraints in Australia's savanna regions is considered. Particular attention is given to ways of improving herbage quality and to optimizing the tree-grass balance. The potential instability of savanna systems is highlighted by the recent invasion of Astrebla spp. grasslands by Acacia nilotica and also the loss in grass cover which can accompany intensification of use in northern areas. Further research, within the framework of integrated property management, is suggested to overcome these problems. (2)Found that landscape position had a significant effect on the population dynamics of the invasion of Acacia nilotica. Shrubs increased in extent and density in riparian areas vs. upland areas probably due to a switch from sheep grazing to cattle grazing. (3)Replaces perennial Astrebla spp. with annuals or bare soil and is a long-term threat to the Mitchell grass biome; converts grassland to shrubland

3.05

Weed Control Manual 2000. Meister Publishing Co., Salem, MA.

Acacia rigidula, Acacia tortuosaand Acacia farnesiana are listed under weeds of pastures and rangeland. Tricopyr is the suggested herbicide for their control.

4.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

" Distinguished from most African Acacia species in possessing long straight paired thorns at the leaf axil which are characteristically deflexed."

4.02

(1) Duhan, J. S.; Lakshminarayana, K. (1995) Allelopathic effect of Acacia nilotica on cereal and legume crops grown in fields. Allelopathy Journal, 1995, Vol.2, No.1, pp.93-98, 8 ref. (2) Dhawan, S. R.; Gupta, S. K.; Poonam Dhawan (1996) Potential of leguminous plants for containing the congress grass. I - effect of aqueous foliar leachates. Advances in Plant Sciences, 1996, Vol.9, No.2, pp.151-154, 16 ref.

(1) AB: Sample plants (2-month-old) of clusterbean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba ) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum ) growing at different distances (1-2, 7.5 and 30 m) from trees of Acacia nilotica were collected from fields in 3 villages in Haryana during September 1991 (summer) and dry weight recorded. Growth was severely inhibited at distances of 1-2 and 7.5 m from the trees, with dry weight values reduced to 88.2 and 80.8% of values at 30 m distance, respectively, for P. glaucum , and to 64.9 and 43.6%, respectively, for C. tetragonoloba . Extracts were made of soil samples collected from the rhizosphere of A. nilotica trees and of the tree bark, and these were bioassayed for their allelopathic effects on the germination and seedling growth of C. tetragonoloba and P. glaucum . Both types of extracts inhibited seed germination and seedling growth of both test species strongly. (2) AB: Aqueous foliar leachates of some leguminous plants inhibited seed germination (SG), early seedling growth (ESG) and fre

4.03

no evidence

4.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

" As a fodder tree, it is utilized in many different silvopastoral systems, and its sweet smelling pods are particularly sought out by animals."

4.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

" As a fodder tree, it is utilized in many different silvopastoral systems, and its sweet smelling pods are particularly sought out by animals."

4.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Pests recorded
Insect pests:
Anomalococcus indicus [1]
Bruchidius uberatus [2]
Callosobruchus maculatus [3]
Cerosterna scabrator [4]
Euproctis lunata [5]
Euproctis subnotata [5]
Fungus diseases:
Fomes pappianus [6]
Fusarium oxysporum [7]
Haplosporella [8]
Foottnotes:
1. scale insect, in Bangladesh
2. can cause severe damage to seed crops, in Africa
3. can damage seed crops in Africa
4. stem borer; causes dieback in India
5. defoliator, in India
6. stem rot; attacks weakened trees
7. causes seedling damping off
8. cause of dieback in India

4.07

no evidence

4.08

(1) Suharty, M. (1990) Acacia arabica as a firebreak in Baluran National Park. [FT: Acacia arabica tanaman sekat bakar di Taman Nasional Baluran.] Duta Rimba, 1990, Vol.16, No.117-118, pp.41-45, 6 ref. (2) Whateley, A. M.; Wills, A. J. (1996) Colonization of a sub-tropical woodland by forest trees in South Africa. Lammergeyer, 1996, Vol.44, pp.19-30, 23 ref.

(1) AB: "Acacia arabica [A. nilotica] has been planted as a firebreak in this national park in East Java since 1969." (2) AB: Based on observations made in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, KwaZulu Natal, a successional process is proposed and tested for Acacia nilotica woodland developing on grasslands subject to a low fire frequency. The sequence proposed is: initial development of trees and shrubs above the effective flame height, resulting in thicket formation which becomes dominated by A. nilotica ; change of the microenvironment below the maturing A. nilotica , giving reduced light intensity, and increased soil moisture and humus, resulting in a change from tall fire susceptible grasses to shorter less flammable species; the establishment of fire sensitive species in these islands beneath the canopy, and merging of the islands as the A. nilotica canopies spread - at which time fire protection becomes complete; senescence of the A. nilotica , and growth of forest species through its canopy to form a continuo

4.09

(1) Chaudhry, A. K. (2001) Effect of shade on growth performance of four tree species: post field planting. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2001, Vol.38, No.3/4, pp.41-43, 8 ref. (2) Chaudhry, A. K. (2001) Effect of shade on growth performance of four tree species: nursery stage. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2001, Vol.38, No.1/2, pp.69-72, 11 ref.

(1) AB: A study was conducted to determine the effect of nursery shading on the subsequent field performance of four tree species: Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, Leucaena leucocephala and Eucalyptus camaldulensis . Results revealed that none of the nursery level shading treatments had any effect on growth performance of species under trial at field level. (2) AB: The effect of different shading intensities on the growth and performance of Acacia nilotica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Prosopis cineraria and Leucaena leucocephala seedlings was studied in Faisalabad, Pakistan. The 4 shade treatments included: no shade (control); half-shade, a single layer of Saccharum munja sticks (chiks) with every alternate stick removed; full shade 1, two layers of chiks superimposed at right angles to each other; full shade 2, the same as full shade but shade to be removed 6-8 weeks prior to outplanting. The rate of survival of seedlings increased with decreasing shade intensity. A. nilotica and L. leucocephala showed

4.1

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Soil and physiography
A. mearnsii occurs across a broad spectrum of sites, but reaches its best development on easterly and southerly aspects of low hills in coastal lowlands and adjacent lower slopes of the tablelands and ranges.  It has been recorded on basalt, dolerite, granite and sandstone but is common on soils derived from metamorphic shales and slates. The soils are mainly loams, sandy loams, and deep forest podzols of moderate to low fertility. The best soils for A. mearnsii are moist, relatively deep, light-textured, and well-drained although it is often found on moderately heavy soils and occasionally on shallow soils. The soils are usually acidic, pH 5-6.5. It is not common on poorly-drained or very infertile sites.
Descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid
- Soil types: alluvial soils(Soil deposits at the mouth of a stream or river, characterized by little or no modification of the original transported material by soil-forming processes. ); pod

4.11

tree

4.12

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Being a prolific seeder and thorny, it can form thickets and become invasive, particularly in more humid sites or where it is not heavily utilized."

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

tree; Fabaceae

5.03

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"A. nilotica is a pioneer (light-demanding), nitrogen-fixing tree"

5.04

tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"A. nilotica is a pioneer species easily regenerated from seed. "

6.03

no evidence of interspecific hybridization

6.04

Mandal, A. K.; Ennos, R. A.; Fagg, C. W. (1994) Mating system analysis in a natural population of Acacia nilotica subspecies leiocarpa . Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 1994, Vol.89, No.7/8, pp.931-935, 27 ref.

AB: The mating-system was investigated in a natural population of the tetraploid taxon Acacia nilotica subsp. leiocarpa using open-pollinated seeds collected in the Sabaki area of Kenya from 15 families. Six-day-old germinated seeds were used for starch-gel electrophoresis. Three enzyme system loci (Adh , alcohol dehydrogenase; Est1 , esterase; and 6Pgd , 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase) were scored. Isoenzyme banding patterns and segregation of isoenzyme variants within families suggested that the species is an autotetraploid displaying tetrasomic inheritance. Estimates of single-locus (t s = 0.358) and multilocus (t m = 0.384) population outcrossing rates were homogeneous, indicating substantial selfing in the population. Heterogeneity of outcrossing estimates among loci and families were marked, suggesting departure from the assumptions of the mixed-mating model. Implications of the result for the utilization of germplasm in tree improvement programmes are noted.

6.05

Thangaraja, A.; Kumar, N. S.; Ganesan, V. (1999) Pollinators of a mimosoid legume, Acacia nilotica . Insect Environment, 1999, Vol.5, No.3, p.119

AB: A total of 15 flower visitors were observed on A. nilotica , of which most were insects, including Apis mellifera . The sunbird, Nectarina sp., was also recorded.

6.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

" It does not produce root suckers regularly, although there are some records (Sheik MI, 1989. Acacia nilotica (L) Willd. ex Del.: its production, management and utilization, Pakistan. Field-Document -FAO-Regional-Office-for-Asia-and-the-Pacific. 1989, No. 20, 45 pp.; 50 ref.)."

6.07

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"A. nilotica flowers at a relatively young age, around three to four years old in ideal conditions, on current-season growth during the rainy season. "

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Location of introductions
A. nilotica has been widely introduced and cultivated, including parts of the Indian subcontinent and Pakistan where it is not native, in the West Indies (Jamaica), Australia, Cyprus, Israel, Zanzibar, Cape Verde Islands, Iraq, Indonesia (Java, Lesser Sunda Islands), Vietnam, Nepal and Iran. It is also being planted within its native range, such as in Sudan, Egypt, Tanzania and Nigeria, principally for timber and fuelwood, tanning, fodder, and shade, and in the Indian subcontinent for fuelwood and timber, agroforestry, land rehabilitation and many other uses."

7.03

no evidence

7.04

no evidence

7.05

(1)http://www.frameweb.org/pdf/SRBPAMPHLET.pdf (2)http://tree.cabweb.org/Compendium/Acacia_nilotica.htm

(1)common along riverbanks (2)It is an important riverine tree in India, Sudan and Senegal,

7.06

no evidence

7.07

no evidence

7.08

Radford, I. J.; Nicholas, D. M.; Brown, J. R.; Kriticos, D. J. (2001) Paddock-scale patterns of seed production and dispersal in the invasive shrub Acacia nilotica (Mimosaceae) in northern Australian rangelands. Austral Ecology, 2001, Vol.26, No.4, pp.338-348, 38 ref.

AB: Paddock-scale A. nilotica (prickly acacia) spatial distribution, seed production and dispersal patterns were investigated in the Astrebla grasslands of northern Australia as a step toward predicting future patterns of invasion. A number of hypotheses were tested based on what we know of this species in both Australia and regions where it is native, for example South Africa. It was hypothesized that most A. nilotica seeds would be produced by trees in riparian habitats with access to permanent water. In addition, we predicted that seeds would be dispersed throughout the Astrebla grassland landscape by cattle, following observations that cattle readily ingest and pass seeds and that cattle have access to all areas within paddock boundary fences. Tree density, seed production and seed dispersal by cattle were measured along a series of transects from permanent watering points to paddock boundary fences. Trees associated with permanent watering points produced more seeds per unit area and occurred at higher

8.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

" A mature tree can produce 2000-3000 pods in a good fruiting season, each with usually between 8 and 16 seeds, yielding 5,000 to 16,000 seed/kg depending on the subspecies."; "Single-stemmed, usually 2.5-15m high but can reach 25 m or more in the riverine subspecies. The crown can be upright and flattened or rounded and spreading, as well as varying from hemispherical to narrow and erect. In India, stem circumference (girth) can develop to 2-3 m, with a clear bole height of 6 to 7.5 m" [2500x12=30,000 seeds/tree; if a mature tree has a canopy larger than 30 square meter (a circle with radius about 3.1 meter) then the answer is no] "

8.02

Masamba, C. (1994) Presowing seed treatments on four African Acacia species: appropriate technology for use in forestry for rural development. Forest Ecology and Management, 1994, Vol.64, No.2/3, pp.105-109, 15 ref.

AB: Studies were undertaken on the seeds of 4 Acacia species (Acacia albida [Faidherbia albida], Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis and Acacia nilotica ) considered to be important for dry land afforestation. Seed dormancy caused by an impermeable seed coat is the main problem to overcome if planting programmes for these species are to be successful. Twelve provenances (5 of F. albida , 3 of A. senegal , 3 of A. tortilis and 1 of A. nilotica ) of the 4 species were used in this study which involved presowing treatments in cold water, hot water, sulfuric acid and a hot-wire scarifier. Seed coat dormancy was observed in 3 of the 4 species but no dormancy was evident in the 3 provenances of A. senegal .

8.03

Suharti, M.; Santoso, E. (1989) Cost analysis of Acacia arabica control in Baluran National Park, East Java. [FT: Analisa biaya pengendalian Acacia arabica di Taman Nasional Baluran Jawa Timur.] Buletin Penelitian Hutan, 1989, No.505, pp.1-8, 5 ref.

AB: Acacia arabica [A. nilotica] has been planted as a firebreak in the Baluran National Park since 1969, but has grown and spread vigorously, infesting the feeding ground of herbivorous game animals and reducing available grassy forage. Two control methods were tried for the weed trees: manual uprooting; and infusion of the herbicide Indamine 720 HC (at 40, 55 or 75 ml/tree) into the stems. The respective costs of the methods were calculated as Rp1040000/ha and Rp3795000/ha. [With English tables.]

8.04

http://tree.cabweb.org/Compendium/Acacia_nilotica.htm

coppices

8.05

no evidence


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