Senna tora (L.) Roxb., Fabaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Reject, score: 10 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Cassia tora L.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: amot-tumaga carabao, mumutong palaéan, mumutun admelon, mumutun palaoan

Chinese: jue ming

English: Java bean, foetid cassia, low senna, peanut weed, sickle senna, sicklepod, stinking cassia

Fijian: kaumoce, kaumothe, pini

French: cassepuante, cassier sauvage, fausse pistache, herbe pistache, pois puant, séné

Hindi: tarota

Japanese: ebisugusa

Rotuman: pin

Samoan: vao pīnati, vao pinati, vao sei

Spanish: bicho, bicho macho, brusca cimarrona, chilinchil, comida de murcielago, ororuz

Tongan: pipi ppālangi, te‘ekosi, te‘epulu, tega fefeka, tengafefeka

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Herbs, suffrutescent, annual, erect, 1-2 m tall. Leaves 4-8 cm; stipules caducous, linear, 10-15 mm; petiole without glands; rachis with a club-shaped gland between leaflets; petiolules 1.5-2 mm; leaflets 3 pairs, obovate or obovate-oblong, 2-6 x 1.5-2.5 cm, membranous, abaxially pubescent, adaxially sparsely pubescent, base cuneate to rounded and oblique, apex rounded, cuspidate. Racemes axillary, short, 1- or 2 (or 3)-flowered; peduncles 6-10 mm; bracts linear, acute. Pedicels 1-1.5 cm. Sepals ovate or ovate-oblong, 5-8 mm, membranous, outside pubescent. Petals yellow, unequal, obovate, lower 2 slightly longer, 12-15 x 5-7 mm, shortly clawed. Fertile stamens 7, nearly equal, filaments 1.5-2 mm, anthers opening by apical pores, ca. 4 mm, 3 larger, 4 smaller, staminodes absent. Ovary sessile, densely white pubescent; style glabrous. Legume terete, subtetragonous, slender, 10-15 x 0.3-0.5 cm, both ends acuminate, valves membranous. Seeds 20-30, glossy, rhomboid, ca. 5 x 3 mm, with an areole"  (Flora of China online).

"A small erect glabrous shrub; to 90 cm tall; leaves to 7.5 cm long, with 2-4 pairs of obovate, blunt, or minutely mucronate, ciliate-margined leaflets, each 1-4 cm long; a gland on the rachis between the lowest pair (or lower 2 pairs) of leaflets; flowers paired in axils, yellow, about 9 mm broad, on a 6 mm pedicel; 3 of the stamens infertile; pod very slender, linear, somewhat curved, 12-25 cm long, 3-6 mm wide, beaked, membranous, with broad sutures; seeds about 20-30, nearly 3 mm long, brown, flat" (Stone, 1970; p. 311).

See also Senna occidentalis.

Habitat/ecology:  "It occurs abundantly in open pastures and in pastures under coconuts, and is very common on roadsides and wasteland.  It tolerates fairly low soil fertilities and moisture levels, but grows tallest where conditions are better, when it may form solid stands to the exclusion of all other plants"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 15).

In Fiji, "cultivated near sea level and also naturalized on cleared land and becoming a weed in villages and thickets up to an elevation of 900 m"  (Smith, 1985; pp. 110-111). In New Guinea, "a weed of cultivation and roadsides, and particularly troublesome in pastures. In lowland areas with a seasonal climate" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 115). In Tonga, "an occasional waste-area weed" (Yuncker, 1959; p. 136). In New Caledonia, "largement répandue en lieux incultes bien que tous les spécimens vus soient récents; devient très envahissant dans les pâturages améliorés du Nord-Ouest de la Grande-Terre; le bétail ne la mange pas" (MacKee, 1994; p. 74).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Paleotropical, from India and Ceylon eastward into Polynesia, but not indigenous east of Melanesia and perhaps not there" (Smith, 1985; pp. 110-111). India to China, the Philippines and the Solomon Islands, exact range obscure; widely naturalized (GRIN).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Setchell, William Albert (1924) (p. 91)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1939) (voucher ID: BISH 153587) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Wagner, W. L./ Herbst, D. R./Weitzman, A./Lorence, D.H. (2013)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 652575) Taxon name on voucher: Cassia tora L.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 15)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 75) Voucher cited: Glassman 2774 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 153634) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 47556) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1860) (voucher ID: BISH 593005) Taxon name on voucher: Cassia tora L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 110-111) Voucher cited: DA 2939
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 110-111) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 896
Fiji Fiji Islands	Matuku Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 110-111) Voucher cited: Bryan 261
Fiji Fiji Islands	Matuku Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 153608) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1938) (voucher ID: BISH 614903) Taxon name on voucher: Cassia tora L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rotuma Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 638037) Taxon name on voucher: Cassia tora L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 110-111) Vouchers cited: Gillespie 4461.4, DA 8923
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1928) (voucher ID: BISH 153609) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1928) (voucher ID: BISH 153610) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 110-111) Vouchers cited: DA 8745, Greenwood 206B, Krauss 1021
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 153611) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 110-111) Voucher cited: DA 10232
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 32827) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 110-111) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 206, DA 9686, Smith 4500, Degener 14981, DA 5958, DA 9779, DA 10732, DA 9525, DA 3372, DA 11279, H.B.R. Parham 9, Meebold 16462
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1955) (voucher ID: BISH 32828) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1932) (voucher ID: BISH 153604) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 153605) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 153606) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1919) (voucher ID: BISH 153607) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 311-312) Voucher cited: Stone 4867 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 99)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 153664) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 153665) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 652574) Taxon name on voucher: Cassia tora L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1953) (voucher ID: PTBG 22396) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 381) Largement répandue en lieux incultes; devient très envahissante dans les pâturages améliorés du Nord-Ouest de la Grande-Terre.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 74) Vouchers cited: Blanchon 797, MacKee 35154, MacKee 39180, Saint-Quentin in MacKee 44936, Auriac in MacKee 44986
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 36)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 12)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Wagner, W. L./ Herbst, D. R./Weitzman, A./Lorence, D.H. (2013)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	introduced invasive	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (pp. 218-219) Not frequent. The plant spreads quickly once introduced.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 115) In lowland areas with a seasonal climate; not yet very common.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	probably native	Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 65)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	invasive	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 265) A very common weed in the settled areas at low and medium altitudes. Where native uncertain.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 71) Voucher: Flynn 6948 (PTBG, US, SAMOA)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1931) (voucher ID: BISH 153591) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 282) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 68)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28603) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 153589) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1921) (voucher ID: BISH 153590) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	probably native	Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 56)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘ano Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 75)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 75)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	‘Uiha Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 75)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 62) Voucher: Flynn 6906 (PTBG, US)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 228) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 56)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 32) Vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 15351, Lawrence 59, Lawrence 116, Soakai 403, Soakai 800
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 136) Vouchers cited: Hülimann 144, Yuncker 15078
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 41225) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 41258) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 41299) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 153579) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1926) (voucher ID: BISH 153580) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 403395) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 69)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 32) Voucher cited: Soakai 883
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 136) Voucher cited: Yuncker 16085
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 153581) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 698061) Taxon name on voucher: Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 168)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 179)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	introduced invasive	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) As Cassia tora. Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 27)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 162)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2013)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 162)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2013)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	El Salvador (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 171)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Honduras (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 168)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Nicaragua (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 168)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2013) "Mountain slopes, wastelands, riverbank sand. Widespread to south of the Chang Jiang".
China China	Hong Kong	introduced invasive	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 136) As Cassia tora L. Common in Hong Kong.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Japan Japan	Japan		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 162)
Japan Japan	Japan	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 184)
Japan Ryukyu Islands	Ryukyu Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
South Korea South Korea	South Korea (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 70)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 162)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 79) Naturalised
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Colombia		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 162)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 162)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Perú (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 162)
Taiwan Taiwan Island	Taiwan Island	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Naturalisé"
Maldives Maldive Islands	Maldive Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Maldives Maldive Islands	Maldive Islands		Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 20)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Rodrigues Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
French Territory of Mayotte Mayotte Islands	Mayotte Island	introduced invasive	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2013) Naturalisée, potentiellement envahissant.
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2013)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	Invasive Species Specialist Group (2017)

Comments:  Especially invasive on the island of ‘Eua, Tonga (Space & Flynn, 2001).

For Galápagos Islands, see S. obtusifolia.

Control: 

Physical:  "Germination may be prevented by mulches if thick enough and undisturbed, but the large seeds give the seedlings great vigor.  Susceptible to hand weeding, chipping and cultivation.  Unpalatable to stock.  Competition from pasture species will probably give control, but it tolerates shade.  Slashing only prevents seeding temporarily"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 22).

Chemical:  "Probably susceptible to: 1) residual herbicides at standard rates; 2) translocated herbicides at standard rates, including wick-wiping with glyphosate.  Susceptible to aciflourfen at standard rate.  Probably susceptible to most herbicides suitable for controlling broad-leaved weeds except 'hormones' formulated with butyric acid" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 22).

Biological: See Waterhouse and Norris (1987) for identification of natural enemies.