Mikania micrantha H.B.K., Asteraceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 25 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: wei gan ju

English: American rope, Chinese creeper, bittervine, climbing hempweed, mikania vine, mile-a-minute weed

Fijian: ovaova, usuvanua, wa bosucu, wa butako, wa mbosuthu, wa mbosuvu, wa mbutako, wa ndamele

French: liane américaine, liane serpent

Kwara‘ae: kwalo kalialo, kwalo kauburu

Maori (Cook Islands): pō kutekute

Niuean: fou laina, fue saina

Palauan: teb el yas

Pohnpeian: selmwadang

Samoan: fue saina

Spanish: camotille

Habit:  vine

Description:  "A branched, slender-stemmed perennial vine.  The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs along the stems and are heart-shaped or triangular with an acute tip and a broad base.  Leaves may be 4-13 cm long.  The flowers, each 3-5 mm long, are arranged in dense terminal or axillary corymbs.  Individual florets are white to greenish-white.  The seed is black, linear-oblong, five-angled and about 2 mm long.  Each seed has a terminal pappus of white bristles that facilitates dispersal by wind or on the hair of animals" (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998)."[A] fast growing, perennial, creeping or twining plant; stems branched, pubescent to glabrous, ribbed; leaves opposite, thin, cordate, triangular, or ovate, blade 4 to 13 cm long, 2 to 9 cm wide, on a petiole 2 to 8 cm long, base cordate or somewhat hastate, tip acuminate, margins coarsely dentate, crenate, or subentire, both surfaces glabrous, three- to seven-nerved from base; flowers in heads 4.5 to 6 mm long, in terminal and lateral openly rounded, corymbous panicles; involucral bracts four, oblong to obovate, 2 to 4 mm long, acute, green, and with one additional smaller bract 1 to 2 mm long; four flowers per head; corollas white, 3 to 4 mm long; fruit an achene, linear-oblong, 1.5 to 2 mm long, black, five-angled, glabrous; pappus of 32 to 38 soft white bristles 2 to 4 mm long" (Holm et al., 1977; p. 322).

Description from the Flora of China online.

Habitat/ecology:  A smothering vine.  "Disturbed forest, stream banks, roadsides, pastures, plantations and cultivated crops.  Humid, sunny or shaded habitats; 0-2000 m altitude. Thought to interfere with soil nitrification processes."  (Waterhouse & Mitchell, 1998; pp. 27-28).  "A major weed in plantations, pastures and along roadsides, and an intermediate weed in crops and forestry.  It grows best where fertility, organic matter, and soil and air humidities are all high.  Mile-a-minute tolerates some shade, and very rapidly overgrows abandoned areas"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 17).

In Niue, "many cleared areas, especially in or near forest, are overrun by Mikania micrantha and the ground is rapidly covered by a dense tangled mat of trailing stems.  It Also tends to smother shrubs and small trees, these being sometimes almost hidden by the aptly named mile-a-minute."  (Sykes, 1970; p. 67). In Fiji, "a scrambling or climbing vine found at elevations from near sea level to about 800 m as a pernicious and often abundant weed on the edges of forest, in clearings, thickets, second-growth forest, and pastures, and along roadsides"  (Smith, 1991; pp. 297-299). In New Guinea, "a weed of pastures, cultivation and young plantations, rapidly blanketing other vegetation. From near sea level to over 2000 m" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 77).

Propagation:  Seed dispersed by wind or in clothing or hair of animals. Vegetatively reproduces from broken stem fragments. Each node of the stem can produce roots. Use as cattle feed, cover crop, and a garden ornamental helps to spread the species.

Native range:  Mexico, Central and South America (GRIN).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 40)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 159)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Whistler 3461
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 52)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1976) (voucher ID: BISH 430198) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 35349) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha Kunth
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 159)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 52)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 39038) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha Kunth
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 159)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 52)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 39103) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha Kunth
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Aunu‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 159)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 159)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1939) (voucher ID: BISH 132464) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1938) (voucher ID: BISH 132467) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1992) (voucher ID: PTBG 44419) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 5)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 665337) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 89)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 664882) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 664888) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. 5) Voucher: BMW 5760 (BISH, BRI, GUAM) Recent introduction.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 13) Invasive
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (2000) (voucher ID: BISH 687684) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Sanney, Jacob A. (2013) (p. 19) KCSO target species 2013
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 297-299) Voucher cited: Smith 13
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 132475) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 297-299) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 893
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 297-299) Voucher cited: Bryan 605
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 132474) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 297-299) Voucher cited: DA 5726
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1971) (voucher ID: BISH 448518) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 297-299) Vouchers cited: Smith 1733, DA 8769, Smith 391
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 132472) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1934) (voucher ID: BISH 132473) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 297-299) Voucher cited: DA 10215
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 297-299) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 94, DA 10409, Smith 4009, DA 10161, Degener 15084, DA 10530, DA 11861, DA 9554, Weiner 257, DA 11915, Smith 7226, DA 10595, DA 12615, Knowles s. n.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 33819) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1955) (voucher ID: BISH 33820) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 132476) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1926) (voucher ID: BISH 132477) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 132478) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 132479) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 448644) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 95)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1963) (voucher ID: BISH 132481) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 438136) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 438140) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1963) (voucher ID: BISH 571510) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 6) "Locally common; a smothering vine covering bananas and other plants behind Bikini Projects complex; probable new record for country; the most treatening species found, one which could potentially cause great agriculturally and environmentally damage; residents around camp said they had not known it to flower but if it does, its windborne seeds could potentially spread over the entire island".
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 67) Vouchers cited: CHR 170417, CHR 170499
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 11)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 26)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 116) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9864 (BISH) "A rapidly growing, weedy vine common in waste areas and plantations. It forms dense, tangled mats on the ground and in surrounding vegetation and is regarded as a pest".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 9)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 7, 85) Subject of an eradication program.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 7, 81) Subject of an eradication program.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 9)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Malakal (Ngemelachel) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 7, 81) Subject of an eradication program.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Malakal (Ngemelachel) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 9)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 7, 81) Subject of an eradication program.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 9)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Peleliu (Beliliou) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 7, 90) Subject of an eradication program.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Peleliu (Beliliou) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 9)
Papua New Guinea Bougainville Islands	Bougainville Island		Foreman, D. B. (1971) (p. 38)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 27-28)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 77)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 67, 78)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 7)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1931) (voucher ID: BISH 132469) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1931) (voucher ID: BISH 132470) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 7)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 28598) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 132466) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 132468) Taxon name on voucher: Mikania micrantha H.B.K.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 92)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 165) Dominant invader.
Tokelau Tokelau Islands	Tokelau Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 11) Voucher cited: Buelow 769
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 7)
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Tuvalu Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 106) "Forest margins".
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 179)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005) Present only on Wallis at this time.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (pp. 11, 32) Cette liane herbacée est abondamment naturalisée. Elle pourrait avoir été introduite par les soldats américains durant la seconde guerre mondiale comme plante de camouflage. Son expansion en zone ouverte (cultures, lisières de forêt) peut être accélérée par des perturbations du milieu (déforestation, cyclones). Ses graines sont disséminées par le vent.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves/Jourdan, Hervé/Malau, Atoloto (2008) (p. 9)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 11)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107) Secondary forest.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M (2003) (p. 480) Subject of an eradication program.
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced invasive	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2013) Naturalized.
China China	Hong Kong	introduced invasive	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 285) On margin of forests, open field, in wasteland.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 27-28)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 27-28)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Negara Brunei Darussalam Brunei	Brunei (Negara Brunei Darussalam)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 27-28)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 27-28)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 61) Naturalised
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Colombia	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 67, 78)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (pp. 46, 119)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Topp, J. M. W. (1988) (p. 9)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Rivers, Julie (2004) (p. 3) Probably Mikania scandens based on voucher by Whistler.
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2013) Naturalisée, potentiellement envahissant.
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 236-237)

Comments:  A very invasive species throughout the Pacific.  On U.S. Federal and State of Hawai‘i noxious weed lists.

Apparently a relatively new introduction to Kosrae but already quite widespread (Space et al., 2000).

New introduction to Yap (Duane Nelson, pers. com.).

New introductions to Pohnpei and Palau subject of eradication programs (Duane Nelson, pers. com.)

A very aggressive weed in American Samoa, Samoa and Niue.

Widespread on Rarotonga and ‘Atiu, less so on Aitutaki, Cook Islands. There are only a few patches at present on Miti‘aro and a single small area on Ma‘uke, which could probably be eradicated (Space & Flynn, 2002).

Widespread on Rota (Space et al., 2000).

Recently discovered in Queensland, Australia, and subject of an eradication program there.

Thought to have been introduced into Vanuatu during World War Two.

Has recently spread from Hong Kong to mainland China (Matthew Cock, communication to Aliens listserver).

Control: 

Physical: "The seeds are dispersed by air currents and germinate readily on moist bare soil.  Seedlings and established plants are susceptible to chipping or cultivation in dry weather, but the vines root readily when left in contact with moist soil or plant debris.  The shoots are susceptible to slashing and mowing, but regrowth is rapid.  Plants can be grazed or cut and fed to stock" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 27).

Chemical:  "Probably susceptible to:  1) many residual herbicides at standard rates; 2) translocated herbicides including glyphosate and 2,4-D before flowering; 3) contact herbicides, including paraquat, while seedlings; however, established plants will probably recover from the base" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 27).  "Herbicides such as triclopyr (Garlon 4) or glyphosate (Roundup) can be used as a foliar spray"  (Englberger, 2009; p. 5).

Biological: A rust fungus from South America, Puccinia spegazzinii, is being introduced under quarantine for trials in India (Carol Ellison, communication to the Aliens listserver).

"A thrips, Liothrips mikaniae, has been released in Malaysia and the Solomon Islands, but extremely high predation is believed to have prevented its establishment"  (Waterhouse, 1994, p. 125).  Waterhouse (1994, pp. 127-135) lists natural enemies of the species and attempts at biological control.