Coffea arabica L., Rubiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk (based on second screen), score: 2 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: cafe, kafé

English: Arabian coffee, coffee

Fijian: kofe, kove

French: café, cafeier, caféier d' Arabie

Maori (Cook Islands): kaope, kaope Maori

Marquesan: kafe

Niuean: kofe

Palauan: kohi

Samoan: kofe

Spanish: café, cafeto, cafeto arábico, cafeto de Arabia

Tahitian: taofe

Tongan: kofi

Habit:  tree

Description:  "Small tree or shrub; leaves dark glossy green, oblong-elliptic or oblanceolate-oblong, acute to acuminate, acute at base, midrib prominent on both surfaces, lateral nerves 7-13 pairs, commonly 5-20 cm long, on petioles about 1 cm long; axils with several short triflorous cymes, pedicels about 4 mm long; bracts deltoid 3 mm long; corolla white, fragrant, 7-10 mm long, usually 5-lobed; anthers 7-8 mm long; fruit red, ellipsoid or oblong, 2-3 (-5)-celled (rarely 1-celled)" (Stone, 1970; p. 542).

Habitat/ecology:  "Prefers deep, fertile soils associated with rainforest areas in tropical or sub-tropical climates" (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 102). Shade-tolerant, seedlings come in under the forest canopy.  In Hawai‘i, "widely cultivated and well naturalized by the mid-1800s primarily in mesic to wet, disturbed sties, usually valleys or along streambeds, often locally abundant, 30-580 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1362-1363).  In Fiji, "cultivated and sparingly naturalized along roads and in forest along creeks from near sea level to an elevation of 900 m"  (Smith, 1988; pp. 223-224). In the Galápagos Islands, "cultivated in the wetter belts on some of the larger islands..., escaped and reproducing spontaneously in the forest, especially in areas abandoned and allowed to revert to jungle" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; pp. 430-432).

Propagation:  Seeds, often dispersed by birds, fruit bats and rats (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 102).

Native range:  Ethiopia.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced	Pickard, J. (1984) (p. 207)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 21) "An escape from cultivation, naturalised to a limited extent". Vouchers cited: A.N. Rodd 1723 (K, NSW); 1898, J.H. Maiden (NSW)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 10) "An escape from cultivation, naturalised to a limited extent". Vouchers cited: W.R. Sykes NI 451 (CHR); 1902, J.H. Maiden & J.L. Boorman (NSW)
Chile (Rapa Nui Island) Rapa Nui (Easter) Island	Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2008) (p. 28)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 79)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 85)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 91)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 97)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 89)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 65)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 173845) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 173846) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 92)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 223-224) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 1219, DA 11707, Smith 4437, Gillespie 3835, Gillespie 3976, Degener 14722, DA 11723, H.B.R. Parham 205, DA 11637, Gillespie 2514, DA 12173, DA 15600, Parks 20166 Sparingly naturalized.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 15516) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 15517) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1959) (voucher ID: BISH 15519) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 33519) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 173865) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 173866) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 173867) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 173868) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 173869) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1951) (voucher ID: BISH 173870) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 173871) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 173872) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1986) (voucher ID: BISH 546546) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Marquesas Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 232)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 554384) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 555116) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 555147) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 130)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 232) Voucher cited: BRY 25431
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 64) Vouchers cited: Gillette 10 (US), Fosberg 64881 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 614425) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 614945) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 232) Voucher cited: Florence 4781
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1967) (voucher ID: BISH 22323) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 492573) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 493279) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 599278) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 599280) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 232) Vouchers cited: Moore 240, BRY 26626, BRY 26636
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 232) Voucher cited: Florence 3889
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 494008) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 554209) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 553013) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Rurutu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 552841) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 542) Naturalized in a few places.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1120-1121)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1120-1121)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1120-1121)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1120-1121)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1120-1121)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1120-1121)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1120-1121)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 102) Not seen on this survey and may no longer be present.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Maré	introduced cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 122) Vouchers cited: Däniker 2650, Lauri 178 (NOU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 122) Vouchers cited: Baudouin 239 s.loc., Grunow s.n. (W), Compton 469 (BM), Cayla s.n., Baumann 14423, MacKee 21979, Fallen 182 (NOU), MacKee 38078; var. "Café Leroy", vouchers cited: Cherrier in MacKee 36066, MacKee 38075 Spontané
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 122) Voucher cited: Cherrier in MacKee 40587
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (p. 135) Relic of cultivation.
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. (1996) (p. 460) Died out naturally.
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 175) Uncommon
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 23)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 112) Voucher cited: Yuncker 10199 (BISH) "Occasional in thickets as an escape".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 41)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 84)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 263)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 80)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 51) Voucher cited: St. John 15034
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 66)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 83836) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 417413) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 72)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 52)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 251) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15226
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1926) (voucher ID: BISH 173822) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 173823) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 65)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Erromango Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1928) (voucher ID: BISH 173864) Taxon name on voucher: Coffea arabica L.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 102)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/subspontané"
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Cousin Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 32) Voucher cited: Fosberg 52130 (US)

Comments:  Some naturalization reported in Guam.

Parham (1972; p. 45) reports considerable naturalization on the edges of forests and along hill tracks up to 300 m in Samoa.

C. robusta and C. liberica also naturalize.

Control: 

Physical: Seedlings may be hand-pulled.

Additional information:
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
Fact sheet from "Common forest trees of Hawaii" (PDF format).
Information from the World Agroforestry Centre's AgroForestryTree Database.

Additional online information about Coffea arabica is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Coffea arabica as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Coffea arabica may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1926. Voucher specimen #BISH 173822 (Setchell, W.A. 15425).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 173866 (Gillespie, J.W. 3976).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 173867 (Gillespie, J.W. 3976).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 173868 (Gillespie, J.W. 3835).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 173871 (Parks, H.E. 20166).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1927. Voucher specimen #BISH 173872 (Gillespie, J.W. 2514).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1928. Voucher specimen #BISH 173864 (Kajewski, S.F. 368).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 173845 (Wilder, G.P. 951).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 173846 (Wilder, G.P. 951).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1941. Voucher specimen #BISH 173865 (Degener, O. 14722).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 173869 (Smith, A.C. 4437).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1951. Voucher specimen #BISH 173870 (Greenwood, W. 1219).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 173823 (Yuncker, T.G. 15226).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1959. Voucher specimen #BISH 15516 (Koroiveibau, D. 11723).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1959. Voucher specimen #BISH 15517 (Parham, J.W. 11707).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1959. Voucher specimen #BISH 15519 (Parham, J.W. 11637).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1967. Voucher specimen #BISH 22323 (Smith, H.M. 45).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 33519 (Koroiveibau, D. 15600).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 83836 (Whistler, W.A. W 186).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1973. Voucher specimen #BISH 417413 (Whistler, W.A. W 1136).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1981. Voucher specimen #BISH 493279 (Florence, J. 2241).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1981. Voucher specimen #BISH 599278 (Fosberg, F.R. 60998).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1981. Voucher specimen #BISH 599280 (Fosberg, F.R. 60998).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 494008 (Florence, J. 3889).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 554384 (Florence, J. 4420).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 555116 (Florence, J. 4158).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 555147 (Florence, J. 4247).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 492573 (Florence, J. 4781).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 552841 (Florence, J. 6079).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 553013 (Florence, J. 5686).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 554209 (Florence, J. 6955).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 614425 (Gillette, J. 10).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 614945 (Fosberg, F.R. 64821).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1986. Voucher specimen #BISH 546546 (Florence, J. 7330).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1983. Natural history of Cousin Island. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Humphries, S. E./Stanton, J. P. 1992. Weed assessment in the wet tropics world heritage area of north Queensland. Report to The Wet Tropics Management Agency. 75 pp. plus plates.

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